Rationals, Periodicity and Chaos: A Pythagorean View and a Conjecture into Socio-spatial Dynamics

Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Sozicty, Vol. 4, pp. 133-143 Reprints available directly from the publisher © 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Published by license under Photocopying permitted by license only the Gordon and Breach Science Publishers imprint. Printed in Malaysia. Rationals, Periodicity and Chaos: A Pythagorean View and a Conjecture into Socio-spatial Dynamics DIMITRIOS S. DENDRINOS Urban and Transportation Dynamics Laboratory, School of Architecture and Urban Design, AeIi EDNSRIN.DS 2005 D The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045-2250, USA ( Received 30 September 1997; In final form 8 November 1998) Deep in the fascinating world of numbers there still might lurk useful insights into the processes of the socio-spatial world. A rich section of the world of numbers is of course Number Theory and its pantheon of findings, a part of which is revisited here. It is suggested in this note that a smooth sequence of seemingly random periodic cycles hides the absence of chaotic dynamics in the sequence. Put differently, a seemingly chaotic sequence of periudic cycles, no matter the bandwidth, implies absence of chaotic motion at any point in the sequence; and conversely, the presence of chaotic motion at any specific point in the sequence implies smooth sequence of periodic cycles at any point in the sequence prior to the onset of quasi periodic or chaotic motions. To make this conjecture, the paper draws material from the well known property of rational numbers in Number Theory, namely that the division of unity by any integer will always produce a sequence of decimals in some form of periodicity. The conjecture is taken in a liberally interpreted “Pythagorean type” context, whereby a general principle is suggested to be present in all natural or social systems dynamics. Thus, the paper’s subtitle. Keywords: Number theory, Rationals, Periodicity, Chaos, Social systems 1. SOME INTERESTING PERIODIC empirical regularities of Theoretical Arithmetics PROPERTIES INVOLVING THE and Number Theory by using numerical calcula- DECIMALS OF THE UNIT’S tions. CERTAIN FRACTIONS (1964). Since then, a plethora of papers and books A reemergence of this idea is due to Ulam have produced innumerable insights into what it In commenting on an initial draft of this paper with could be perceived as a rather esoteric mathematical its emphasis on computer simulation, Professor topic, enhanced by the modern power of comput- M. Sonis has suggested to this author* that the ing. It is suggested here that Number Theory and great Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler was computing might not be as removed from social the first one, in the 18th century. to search into the sciences as they might first appear. * Personal correspondence, October 1998.

© 2000 OPA (Overseas Publishers Association) N.V. Discrete Dynamics in Nature and Society, Vol. 4, pp. 133-143 Reprints available directly from the publisher Published by license under the Gordon and Breach Science Photocopying permitted by license only Publishers imprint. Printed in Malaysia. Rationals, Periodicity and Chaos: A Pythagorean View and a Conjecture into Socio-spatial Dynamics DIMITRIOS S. DENDRINOS Urban and Transportation Dynamics Laboratory, School of Architecture and Urban Design, The University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045-2250, USA (Received 30 September 1997; In final form 8 November 1998) Deep in the fascinating world of numbers there still might lurk useful insights into the processes of the socio-spatial world. A rich section of the world of numbers is of course Number Theory and its pantheon of findings, a part of which is revisited here. It is suggested in this note that a smooth sequence of seemingly random periodic cycles hides the absence of chaotic dynamics in the sequence. Put differently, a seemingly chaotic sequence of periodic cycles, no matter the bandwidth, implies absence of chaotic motion at any point in the sequence; and conversely, the presence of chaotic motion at any specific point in the sequence implies smooth sequence of periodic cycles at any point in the sequence prior to the onset of quasi periodic or chaotic motions. To make this conjecture, the paper draws material from the well known property of rational numbers in Number Theory, namely that the division of unity by any integer will always produce a sequence of decimals in some form of periodicity. The conjecture is taken in a liberally interpreted “Pythagorean type” context, whereby a general principle is suggested to be present in all natural or social systems dynamics. Thus, the paper’s subtitle. Keywords: Number theory, Rationals, Periodicity, Chaos, Social systems 1. SOME INTERESTING PERIODIC empirical regularities of Theoretical Arithmetics PROPERTIES INVOLVING THE and Number Theory by using numerical calcula- DECIMALS OF THE UNIT’S tions. CERTAIN FRACTIONS (1964). Since then, a plethora of papers and books A reemergence of this idea is due to Ulam have produced innumerable insights into what it In commenting on an initial draft of this paper with could be perceived as a rather esoteric mathematical its emphasis on computer simulation, Professor topic, enhanced by the modern power of comput- M. Sonis has suggested to this author* that the ing. It is suggested here that Number Theory and great Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler was computing might not be as removed from social the first one, in the 18th century, to search into the sciences as they might first appear. * Personal correspondence, October 1998.

A note at the outset: all properties presented does it appear that these sequences are random, as below have been obtained by computing; thus, all one moves up the fractions’ scale. Also noteworthy propositions made here require formal mathematis the fact that small periodic sequences in decimals ical proofs. No periodicity greater than 75 number appear no matter the position in the fractions’ scale cycles is reported, except as a postulate. (from 1/1 to 1/r, where r is very large). Since these What motivated this note, as a part of a series periodic sequences are to an extent no chance of three closely connected papers,' is the need for a events, the question arises as to whether there are closer look at the approximations involved in varia few underlying principles generating at least cerous divisions when social stocks are studied. It is tain among them." Similar questions arise with dinot so much the approximation itself which is of visions involving physical, chemical or other social import here, but rather the conclusions one might and economic stocks (for example, intercurrency draw from the study into the nature of these diviconversions). sions proper. More precisely, the paper elaborates In searching for answers to these initial queson the realization that when shares of stocks are tions, two general properties underlying periodic computed then certain properties inevitably appear cycles in streams of decimals are uncovered: first, which characterize these shares. In computing the there seem to be some prime numbers with assoshares of large stocks (as is the case when urban to ciated periodic sequences which dominate; and regional or to national population ratios are comsecond, puted), the ensuing probability always consists of a as accumulations of successively higher powers of stream of periodic (at times with a very large period) numbers. Both of these properties are uncovered decimals. These periodic sequences are “rationals” for the first time here, to the author’s knowledge. periodic sequences can be constructed as they are the outcome of divisions of integer num- There seems to be certain linkages between pebers or fractions, Niven (1961) Chapters 2 and 3. riodic behavior in decimal streams of the unit’s The study of rationals enjoys a very long and disdivisions, and a variety of events already recorded tinguished past in the history of mathematics in in numerous mathematical branches, particularly general and Number Theory in specific, Adams and those associated with nonlinear dynamics. Thus, Goldstein (1976) Chapter 1. At the start of any rathe Pythagorean universality of this paper’s title is tional number sequence should be the study of the justified. unit’s divisors by all integers, something that one fails to see in standard textbooks on rationals. Were one to systematically study the behavior of these 1A. First Set of General Properties specific rationals, then one might seek regularities, A special set of fractions are examined in this paper: or distinct properties, governing their periodicity. that set which represents the unit’s division by any As this paper demonstrates, the periodic seother integer. The division produces a stream of quence of decimals of the unit’s divisions by intedecimals which falls into one of the following three gers, although apparently not random, does not distinct categories: seem to obey any predictable rule either; 1.e., there (a) Fixed point This type of decimal stream does not appear that periodic sequences of increascontains a finite number of digits, at most six deciing period occur at expected intervals as one moves mals in the spectrum (1/2...1/101), involving the up the magnitude of integer divisors; but neither division 1/64 = 0.015625, and at most ten decimals ' This paper, in conjunction with two other papers by the author titled “Iterates” and “Oddities” (still under construction) comprise the three paper sequence. "One may ask the question in view of the information we now have on the periodic motions involved in nonlinear dynamics.

in the spectrum (1/2...1/2001) that this paper The single 4-n periodic cycle is found at the divihas looked at (with an aperture of 75 decimal sion 1/101 =0.0099..., the single 8-n cycle is at approximation), involving the fraction 1/1024= 1/73 = 0.01369863..., whereas the single 9-n peri- 0.0009765625; there are fourteen fixed points in odic the interval (1/2...1/101). 0.012345679...; the relatively high frequency of cycle corresponds to the division 1/81 = This type of deci- 3-n and particularly 6-n periodic cycles is noted; no mal sequence usually (but not necessarily) con- 7-n cycle has been encountered in this interval, see (b) One-number (1-n) cycle tains two parts: a (varying and nonperiodic) set of decimals (to be called a dendrite, the longest one appearing in the interval (1/2...1/101) at 1/96= 0.010416..., consisting of five digits); and an infinite series of 1’s, 2’s, 3’s, 5’s, 6’s, 7’s or 9’s to be referred to as a 1-n.1, 1-n.2,...1-n.9 cycle se- TABLE I Cumulative frequencies of periodic cycles in unit’s fractions decimal streams Period I IT IN IV V VI 2 4 11 3 2 6 24 31 36 40 19 28 34 with a dendrite. However, its distinct type will be 4 — 39 1 5 9 12 retained, due to the fact that such cycles have an 5 — 15 2 10 18 23 27 156 quence respectively. The fixed point type decimal sequence could also be looked at as a 1-n.0 cycle 6 9 27 74 109 135 7 — — 2 4 7 8 8 — I 9 17 25 30 five 1-n.3, one 1-n.5, five 1-n.6, one 1-n.7, and one 9 — l 3 5 6 7 1-n.9 of these cycles (in total 16 out of 101 divi- 10 — — 2 3 4 5 11 — — — — — — exact (and not an approximate) depiction depicted by its dendrite. There exist two 1-n.1, one 1-n.2, sions) in the spectrum (1/2...1/101). Thus, all 12 — — 2 2 4 4 single digit cycles are encountered with the excep- 13 — 2 14 24 30 36 tion of a 1-n.4 and a 1-n.8 cycles. The relatively 14 — — — — — — 15 — 3 13 20 28 33 16 2 7 20 30 36 44 is noted in this part of the spectrum. In the spec- 17 — — — — — — trum (1/2...1/2001) there are four 1-n.1, three 1- 18 2 7 25 40 56 67 19 — — — — — — — high frequency of 1-n.3 and 1-n.6 periodic cycles n.2, fourteen 1-n.3, three 1-n.4, four 1-1n.5, thirteen 20 — — — — — l-n.6, two 1-n.7, two 1-n.8 and one 1-n.9 period 21 — 2 10 15 20 25 cycles. Again, the relatively high frequency of the 22 2 6 20 28 37 41 1-n.3 and 1-n.6 cycles is noted, as well as the rela- 23 — — — — — — 24 — — — 3 4 9 25 — — — — — — marked that as the size of the spectrum increases 26 — — — 3 4 7 20-fold, the overall frequency of these one-decimal 27 — — 2 4 5 6 28 — 3 14 24 32 37 tive rarity of the 1-n.9 cycle. Further, it is reperiodic cycles decreases considerably. 29 — — — — — — type 30 — — 9 19 32 42 of decimal stream may involve a dendrite. For 31 — — — — — 1 32 — — 2 6 12 15 17 (c) A periodic cycle of decimals This example, in the interval 1/2...1/101, at 1/88= 33 — l 6 9 13 0.0113636... there is a three digit (011) dendrite 34 — — 4 8 12 13 and it is followed by a 2-n cycle (thirty-six). In the 35 — l 6 11 15 18 interval 1/2...1/101 one encounters 2-n (seven), 36 — — — — — 1 37 — — — — — — — 3-n (four), 4-n (one), 5-n (two), 6-n (fifteen), 8-n 38 — — — — — (one), 9-n (one). In total, there are 31 of these 39 — — — — J 2 types of periodic cycles in this interval of integer 40 — — — — — — 41 — l 5 9 divisors of unity.

TABLE I (Continued ) Period I and 42-n (fifty-six) cycles, Table I. A few hints as to II III IV < < NNo) EN N un on 42 _ 43 — 44 _ 45 — 46 — 47 — 48 — 49 — — — 50 — — 2 51 — — 1 52 — —_ — 1 53 — — 4 7 54 — — — 1 55 — — — 1 Feolron] — 13 | 56 — — — 57 — — — 58 — 1 7 1 12 59 — — — 1 60 — 1 8 14 61 — — — | 62 — — — 63 — — — 64 — — 65 — — 66 — 67 |8NBE)LAecnac why will be given later. 1B. Second Set of General Properties In examining the location of the various cycles when they first appear, a number of observations are possible. Period 6-n appears at 1/7; the first 16-n cycle appears at 1/17; the first 18-n at 1/19; 22-n at 1/23; 28-n at 1/29; 46-n at 1/47; 58-n at 1/59; 60-n at 1/61, Table II. All these periodic sequences (where the period n is at location 1/(n + 1)), when they first appear, have no dendrite associated with them, Table IIT, and they correspond to prime number divisors (1.e., 7+ 1 are all primes). The case of the 96-n periodic sequence, appearing at 1/97, is shown in Table III: since 1/97 is not associated with any of the frequently encountered periodic sequences, the hypothesis was tested whether — — — — — — — — — cycle. This proved to be the case. Consequently, one — 5 15 might expect that prime number divisors, desig- — — — — 68 — — — 1 69 — — | 3 numbers associated with a set of frequently encoun- 70 — — — | tered periodic sequences, or the beginning point of 71 — = — 72 — — — — 73 — — — — 74 — — — — — — 75 — — — — — — >75 — 1 102 330 604 908 it might be the location of the first 96-n periodic nated as N, are either points in the spectrum of N — 1 periodic cycles. Period 15-n appears at 1/31; 21-n at 1/43; 33-n at Note 1: Only periodic motions (plus the dendrite) equal to or less than 75 were examined. 1/67; 35-n at 1/71; 41-n at 1/83; 44-n at 1/89; 53-n at 1/107, Table II. All these periodic sequences (where the period nis at location 1/(2n + 1)), when they first appear have no dendrite associated with them, too, Note 2: The sıx domains in the spectrum of integer unit divisors, and they also correspond to prime number divisors for which cumulative frequencies of periodic sequences were (1.e., 2n + 1 are all primes), Table IH. computed, are: I ıdentifies periodic frequencies between 1/2 and 1/50; II identifies periodic frequencies between 1/2 and When the 43-n period sequence first appears at 1/101; INT identifies periodic frequencies between 1/2 and 1/500; 1/173, Table II, it happens that 173 = 4n + 1; 69-n at IV identifies periodic frequencies between 1/2 and 1/1000; V identifies periodic frequencies between 1/2 and 1/1500; and VI identifies periodic frequencies between 1/2 and 1/2001. 1/277, where 277 = 4n + 1, Table III. The 34-n period first appears at 1/103, where 103=3n+1, Table III. 103 is also a prime number. The sequence in obtaining periodic streams of Table I. In the interval (1/2...1/2001) there are decimals as the magnitude of the divisors increase, one-hundred and fifty-six 6-n cycles, by far the most Table HI, observes the following rules: first, a fixed frequently encountered periodic sequence in the point is obtained at 1/2=0.5; it is followed by a decimal fractions of unity. Following the 6-n period l-n.3 cycle at 1/3 =0.3...; at 1/7 =0.142857... the cycle’s frequency, one finds the 18-n (sixty-seven) first six period (6-n) cycle appears; at 1/11 =0.09...

TABLE IT Period First Period First appearing at 137 First appearance of periodic sequences Period appearing at First Period appearing at First Period First appearing at appearing at 2 11 17 ? 32 353 47 ? 62 ? 3 27 18 19 33 67 48 119 63 ? 4 101 19 ? 34 103 49 ? 64 ? 5 41 20 ? 35 71 50 251 65 ? 6 7 21 43 36 1919 51 613 66 161 7 239 22 23 37 ? 52 521 67 ? 8 73 23 ? 38 ? 53 107 68 920 9 81 24 511 39 1431 54 856 69 277 10 324 25 ? 40 ? 55 760 70 781 11 ? 26 583 4] 83 56 928 71 ? 12 390 27 243 42 49 57 ? 72 1387 13 53 28 29 43 173 58 59 73 ? 14 ? 29 ? 44 89 59 610 74 ? 15 31 30 211 45 ? 60 61 75 ? 16 17 31 1621 46 47 61 733 the first 2-n period cycle is encountered; at 1/17 the first 16-n periodic sequence is obtained, whereas at 2. DOMINANCE OF CERTAIN PRIME NUMBER DIVISORS 1/19 the first 18-n cycle comes up. 1/81 =0.0123456790... produces When unity is divided by a multiple of certain the first and only 9-n period cycle in the interval The division prime numbers, then some dominance patterns (1/2...1/101), emerge. Some of these dominance patterns are as whereas, the division 1/101 = 0.0099... results in the first and only 4-n cycle in the set of divisions within the follows: above interval (interval IT of Table IT). Rule 1 The divisor 11x 5=55 will behave as the With the exception of the first fixed point (at 1/2) divisor of 11 (i.e., it will exhibit a 2-n periodic and the case of the first 3-n period cycle (at 1/27), cycle). Thus, prime number 11 dominates prime all other transitions to a new phase involve divisions number 5, or 11D5. by a prime number. Rule 2 The divisor 7 x 11= 77 will behave as the A 3-n periodic cycle commences, as already divisor of 7 (1.e., it will exhibit a 6-n periodic cycle). noted, at 1/27 (where 27 is not a prime number); Thus, prime number 7 dominates prime number 11, it appears next at 1/37, where 37 is a prime numor 7DII. ber. One may ask why is it so, and what particular Rule 3 value is associated with 27 = 3°. This topic will be 7D5 which is the case. For example, 1/35 behaves addressed at another occasion. Note that 1/27= as 1/7 (i.e., it exhibits a 6-n periodic cycle). 0.037037... and 1/37 =0.027027... Rule 4 In general, periodicity associated with prime Since 7D11 and 11DS it must follow that The divisor 3 x 5=15 will behave as the divisor 3, thus 3D5. number divisors has always zero length dendrites. Rule 5 Put differently, if there is a dendrite in the periodic divisor 7, thus 7D3. sequence of decimals in a unit’s divisor, then this Rule 6 divisor is not a prime number; but the opposite does divisor 11, thus //D3. not necessarily hold, Comment Consequently, without dendrites might involve nonprime number dominance pattern divisors. 7D11D3D5. since periodic sequencing The divisor 7 x 3=21 will behave as the The divisor 3 x 11 =33 will behave as the so has far, been following established:

TABLE III The Periodic Table of unit fractions by integers less than 103* Division Behavior Comment Prime divisor (p) 1/2=0.5 fixed point (fp) 1/3 =0.333... l-n.3 cycle 1/4=0.25 fp 1/5=0.2 fp first I-n cycle 1/6=0.16... 1-n.6 cycle one digit dendrite 1/7 =0.142857... 6-n cycle first 6-n cycle 1/8 = 0.125 fp 1/9=0.111... 1-n.1 cycle 1/10=0.1 fp 1/11=0.09... 2-n cycle first 2-n cycle 1/12 =0.083... 1-n.3 cycle two digit dendrite 1/13 = 0.076923... 6-n cycle 1/14=0.0714285... 6-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/15=0.06... 1-n.6 cycle one digit dendrite 1/16=0.0625 fp 1/17 = 0.05882352941 17647... 16-n cycle first 16-n cycle 1/18=0.05... 1-n.5 cycle one digit dendrite 1/19 =0.052631578947368421... 18-n cycle 1/20 = 0.05 1/21 =0.0476190. .. fp 6-n cycle 1/22 = 0.045... 2-n cycle 1/23 = 0.0434782695652173913... 22-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/24=0.0416... 1-n.6 cycle 1/25 = 0.04 fp three digit dendrite 1/26 =0.0384615... 6-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/27 =0.037... 3-n cycle first 3-n cycle 1/28 = 0.0357142857... 6-n cycle four digit dendrite 1/29 =0.0344827586206896551724137931... 28-n cycle 1/30 — 0.03... 1-n.3 cycle 1/31 = 0.032258064516129. .. 15-n cycle 1/32 = 0.03125 fp 1/33 = 0.030... 2-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/34 = 0.02941 176470588235... 16-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/35 = 0.0285714... 6-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/36 = 0.027... 1-n.7 cycle two digit dendrite 1/37 =0.027... 3-n cycle 1/38 = 0.0263157894736842105. .. 18-n cycle 1/39 = 0.025641... 6-n cycle 1/40 = 0.025 fp one digit dendrite 1/41 = 0.02439... 5-n cycle first 5-n cycle 1/42 = 0.0238095. .. 6-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/43 = 0.023255813953488372093. .. 21-n cycle 1/44 = 0.0227... 2-n cycle two digit dendrite 1/45 = 0.0222... 1-n.2 cycle one digit dendrite 1/46 = 0.02173913043478260869565. .. 22-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/47 = 0.0212765957446808510638297872340425531914893617... 46-n cycle 1/48 = 0.02083... 1-n.3 cycle 1/49 = 0.020408 163265306122448979591836734693877551... 42-n cycle 1/50= 0.02 fp four digit dendrite 1/51 =0.01960784313725490... 16-n cycle 1/52=0.01923076... 6-n cycle two digit dendrite 1/53 =0.0188679245283... 13-n cycle first 13-n cycle 1/54 = 0.0185... 3-n cycle one digit dendrite

TABLE III (Continued ) Division Behavior Comment Prime divisor (p) 1/55=0.018... 2-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/56 = 0.017857142. .. 6-n cycle three digit dendrite 1/57 =0.017543859649122807... 18-n cycle 1/58 = 0.01724137931034482758620689655. .. 28-n cycle 1/59 = 0.0169491525423728813559322033898305084745 76271 1864406779661... 58-n cycle 1/60 — 0.016... 1-n.6 cycle 1/61 =0.016393442622950819672131147540983606557377049180327868852459... 60-n cycle one digit dendrite two digit dendrite 1/62 = 0.0161290322580645. .. 15-n cycle 1/63 =0.015873... 6-n cycle 1/64 = 0.015625 fp 1/65 =0.0153846. .. 6-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/66=0.015... 2-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/67 = 0.014925373 1343283582088955223880597. .. 33-n cycle 1/68 = 0.014705882352941176... 16-n cycle 1/69 = 0.0144927536231884057971... 22-n cycle 1/70 =0.0142857. .. 6-n cycle 1/71 =0.01408450704225352112676056338028169. .. 35-n cycle one digit dendrite one digit dendrite 1/72 =0.0138... 1-n.8 cycle three digit dendrite 1/73 =0.01369863... 8-n cycle first 8-n cycle 1/74=0.0135... 3-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/75=0.013... 1-n.3 cycle two digit dendrite 1/76 = 0.01315789473684210526. .. 18-n cycle two digit dendrite 1/77 =0.012987... 6-n cycle 1/78 =0.0128205. .. 6-n cycle 1/79 = 0.0126582278481... 13-n cycle 1/80 =0.0125 fp 1/81 =0.012345679. .. 9-n cycle first 9-n cycle 1/82=0.012195... 5-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/83 = 0.012048 19277108433734939759036144578313253... 41-n cycle 1/84 =0.01190476. .. 6-n cycle two digit dendrite 1/85 = 0.01176470588235294. .. 16-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/86 = 0.0116279069767441 860465. .. 21-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/87 =0.0114942528735632183908045977... 28-n cycle 1/88 =0.01136... 2-n cycle 1/89 = 0.01123595505617977528089887640449438202247191... 44-n cycle one digit dendrite three digit dendrite 1/90=0.01... 1-n.1 cycle 1/91 =0.010989. .. 6-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/92 = 0.010869565217391304347826. .. 22-n cycle 1/93 = 0.010752688172043. .. 15-n cycle 1/94 = 0.01063829787234042553191489361702127659574468085. . . 46-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/95 = 0.0105263157894736842. .. 18-n cycle one digit dendrite 1/96 =0.010416... 1-n.6 cycle five digit dendrite 1/97 =0.0103092. .. 96-n cycle** 1/98 = 0.0102048 16326530612244897959183673469387755. .. 42-n cycle 1/99=0.01... 2-n cycle 1/100=0.01 fp 1/101 =0.0099. .. 4-n cycle first 4-n cycle 1/102 =0.00980392156862745... 16-n cycle one digit dendrite two digit dendrite one digit dendrite * All calculations were carried out at a 75-digit approximation. ** As an experiment, the 1/97 sequence was computed to test whether a prior “expected” 96-n cycle would indeed appear, by using 120 decimals in length sequence; the expectation was realized. See text for more discussion.

The divisor 13 x 11 = 143 will exhibit the One might profitably ponder the question what the behavior of 13, 1.e., a 6-n period cycle. Thus: dominance patterns, identified above, and the cycle Rule T 13D11D3D5. Among primes 7 and 13 there does accumulation phenomenon (to be addressed below), not arise a question of dominance, since both promight imply for these universal sequences. Among duce 6-n period cycles. other things, they might set “markers” for separa- Rule 8 The divisor of unity 17x 7=119 (or tion domains in these sequences. 17 x 13 =221) will behave neither as that of 17 (with a 16-n cycle) nor that of 7 and 13 (with a 6-n cycle); in effect 1/119 and 1/221 both exhibit a 48- 3. ON THE NATURE OF CERTAIN n cycle. Thus, the 16-n cycle resulting from 1/17 is PERIODIC BEHAVIOR: CYCLE a killer prime of frequencies with respect to both ACCUMULATION 7 and 13. Consequently, here lies the answer to the initial question motivating this paper: large The discussion which follows, beyond its mathenumber divisors of the unit tend invariably to promatical interest, presents the opportunity to derive duce very large number periodic streams because some fundamental underlying principles in socioof the killer properties of the 16-n cycle over all spatial (and possibly even natural) systems. It is other smaller period streams. shown Comment The killer property of 17 (and 19) and rational numbers is but an accumulation of a well the relative dominance of 7 and 13 among prime identified sequence of cycles. This finding may shed numbers may hint at the high frequency of the 16- some light into the nature of socio-spatial periodic n (and the 18-n), as well as that of the 6-n period dynamics, as the composites of temporal (hourly, cycles in the Periodic Table (Table I). Thus, 17 may daily, be dominant not because there are many multiples cycles; as well as spatially dominant (urban, reof 17 in any interval (I,II,..., VI), but because of gional, national, global) cycles. that the weekly, decimal monthly, sequences seasonal, of certain yearly, etc.) First, a brief look into some periodic decimal its killer property. The same rationale may apply to 7 and 13 with streams will be taken. The inverse of 7 1s a 6-n cycle regards to the 6-n cycle, as well. Consequently, (1/7 =0.142857...); this cycle is simply the accudominance is afforded a prime number because of mulation of successively higher powers of 2, multithe frequency of its underlying behavior, and not plied by 7, and occupying two decimal places each, because of its relative magnitude. as follows: Rule 10 Any divisor of unity by an integer which 14 28 is not a prime but a multiple of one or more 57 14 28 57... 56 prime(s) will behave as the dominant prime num- 1 ber. All prime numbers dominate all nonprime 12 2 numbers which are not multiples of primes. 24 4 Professor Sonis* has remarked to the author, in 48 8 response to a prior draft of this paper, that the dual 96 17 92 13 92 representation of the rational numbers will result in the symbolic dynamics introduced by Thue (1906) and Morse (1921), and used by Metropolis ef al. (1973) for the presentation of “universal 28 57 14 28 56 | sequences,” see Schroeder (1991) and Hao (1983). Private correspondence, October 1998.

so that: 14=2x 7; 28=2°x 7; 56=2° x 7; 112 — 2x7; 224=2°?x7; 448=2°x 7; 896=2'x7; 1792=2° x7, etc. The accumulation of these involving the inverse of 112 (an integer equal to powers of 2 occurs as indicated above. 2* x 7) and a four digit dendrite (0089), Table III, Some definitions and nomenclature: In the following 6-n sequence (or power accumulation) Another similar cycle 1s the inverse of 13, another 1/112 =0.0089285714285714... one observes the 6-n cycle: 0.076923... This specific cycle involves following: there is a two-digit space over which again two decimal spaces and successively higher products powers of 9 multipied by 7 as follows: spaces area will be referred to as the box-2 space; of 91 accumulate. The two-decimal the first O which is outside the boxed area is of 0.07 course the one digit dendrite of the power accumu- 63 5 lation sequence; the prime number 7 (seemingly 67 51 a prime number is always present in a periodic se- 03 quence broken down to an accumulation of prod0.07 ucts or powers of usually another number) is the 68 | 18 base; the number 91, products of which here accu- 03 mulate (91, 182, 364, 728, etc.), is a product seed. If powers of the seed accumulate, like in the case 69 of 1/19, the example previously shown, then this is a so that, 7=7 x 9°; 63 =7 x 9!; 567 =7 x 97; 5103 = 7x9? etc... The accumulation occurs as indicated power seed; the product number (here 2, as the seed is successively doubled) is the multiplier; in the case above with decimal units carried over to the apof exponentiation, it would be referred to as the propriate locations and with the additions shown power. Another solved case of a periodic stream 1nunder the lines drawn. Next, a longer periodic stream of decimals is volving power accumulation is that of 1/47= analyzed. Consider the inverse of 19 which is a 18-n 0.02127659574... a 46-n periodic sequence, see cycle, see Table III. This is a two-decimal spaces Table III. This sequence involves an accumulation accumulation of simple powers of 5, as shown of powers of 6 (the power seed 6=2 x 3, prime below: number 3 being the base), with 02 being the twodigit power accumulation dendrite; the box-2 space 0.05 allows for accumulation of: 2x = 72, 2 x 6° = 432, 2 x 6° = 2592, 2 x 6° = 15 552. 25 I 25 6 An 25 31 25 l 56 informative behavior, see the paper on “Oddities” by the author, regarding rules involved 25 in series of sequences, is found in the periodic streams of the region of inverses for the numbers 0.05 26 31 57 81 991-999: the 1/998 (a periodic sequence greater than 75 digits) is formed by accumulation of powers so that the terms shown above involve the first (5), of 2 over a box-4 space; 1/997 (also a periodic sesecond (25), third (125), fourth (625), fifth (3125) quence with a period greater than 75 digits) involves and sixth (15625) powers of 5. They have been powers of 3; 1/996 (a 41-n periodic sequence) is accumulated appropriately. Thus, the 18-n periodic an accumulation of powers of 4; 1/995 (a periodic stream of decimals is nothing but a sequence and sequence with period greater than 75) involves accumulation of simple powers of 5. The key is that powers of 5; 1/994 (with a period greater than 75, each of these successively higher powers of 5 occupy too) is an accumulation of powers of 6; 1/993 (with two decimal spaces. a period greater than 75, as well) involves powers

of 7; 1/992 (a 15-n periodic cycle) has powers of 8; numbers in sequence (10, 11, 12), whereas the rest 1/991 (with a period greater than 75) has powers of of the boxes (at least up to the next eight) are filled 9; and 1/990 (a 2-n periodic cycle) involves powers with products of the number 23 (2 x 12-1). The of 10. A similar case is found in the region of sequence of products is: 23, 45, 91, 184, 368,... The inverses at 490-499, specifications of the sequence are: box-2, eight-digit But there are other periodic streams of decimals dendrite (itself a sequence, as indicated), prime which do not succumb to such power accumulation; number 23 1s the base, also being the product seed, an informative example is the inverse of the first number 2 is the multiplier. There could be more 16-n cycle breaks in this sequence, which the author (due to stream encountered in the Periodic Table, that of 17. This finding forces one to recogthe computing limitations used) could not detect. nize the existence of at least two types of periodic 1/35 = 0.0285714285714... is a 6-n cycle, which streams, a false (like the one of 1/19) and a genuine involves accumulations of products of 28; the exact one (like that of 1/17). specifications are: box-2, one digit dendrite (0), prime number 7 is the base (35 =5 x 3°), product seed is 28 (7 x 2°), and 2 is the multiplier. The first 4. OTHER SOLVED SEQUENCES OF POTENTIAL INTEREST five numbers accumulating are: 28, 56, 112, 224 and 448. The 6-n period sequence of the inverse of 28 is Next, a number of other sequences are presented, 1/28 =0.0357142857142857...;thisisan accumulabecause they seem to indicate some fertile grounds tion of products of 14. The exact specifications are: for further work. All of the sequences given below box-2, four-digit dendrite (0357=51 x 7), prime have been solved in terms of their underlying prinnumber 7 is the base, 141s the product seed, number ciples giving rise to them. Since these cases identify 2 is the multiplier; the first five numbers accumulatsequences consisting of variations of previously ing are: 14, 28, 56, 112 and 224. established themes, they might possibly be indicat- Another type of accumulation is that of the ing that the study of rationals hides still yet more periodic sequence 1/38 =0.02631578947... Here, interesting cases. 0.00103092783505...; this is a periodic sequence the sequence is: 26, 2 x 26—5°=31, 2x 31—5'= 57, 2 x 57 — 5° =89, 2 x 89 — 5° =53, 2x 53-5%= —519, —2 x 519+5*,... (yet to be studied). Also, with a period greater than 75 digits, with products sequences of some interest along similar lines are of 10 accumulating over two-space areas. The exact those involving the inverse of 38 = 2 x 19, and 26 = Take for instance the inverse of 970: 1/970 = specifications are: box-2, two-digit power accumu- 2 x 13. They are left to the interested reader to lation dendrite (00), prime number 3 is the base, unfold, as an exercise. number 10, is the product seed, number 3 is the multiplier; the first six products of the sequence are: 10, 30, 90, 270, 810, 2430. Another solved case of a periodic sequence is that of 1/358 = 0.0028011204480... The specifications 5. CONCLUSIONS: THE IMPOSSIBILITY OF CHAOS IN SOCIO-SPATIAL DYNAMICS are: box-4, one-digit dendrite (0), prime number 7 the base, product seed is 280 (2° x 5 x 7), and 4 is The paper presented a conjecture, namely that the multiplier. The three first numbers accumulatif rational numbers are any indication, then one ing are: 280, 1120 = 280 x 4, and 4480 = 1120 x 4. ought not to expect mathematical chaos in socio- Another case solved is the inverse of 989; 1/989 = spatial (and even possibly, natural science) systems. 0.00101112234580384... a greater than 75 period In particular, impossibility of chaotic dynamics in sequence. socio-spatial systems at least is partly supported The first three boxes are filled with

by the empirical fact that smooth variations in rob all socio-spatial systems from their “reality,” no any social parameter does not generate period matter the tool used to study and analyze them. doubling behavior. No empirical evidence, to this author knowledge, has been presented to violate this assertion. A second finding of possible interest has been that of “cycle accumulation” found in seemingly random sequences of periodic motions in the decimals of rational numbers. This finding might suggest that socio-spatial (and possibly natural science) systems are governed by the presence of simultaneous cycles ranging from temporal ones (hourly, Acknowledgments This work was inspired by and is dedicated to my daughter Daphne Iris. The author wishes to thank his Research Assistant Chaoche (Kevin) Hsu for the computer work in generating the 75 digit decimal streams. Useful suggestions from Michael Sonis are also greatly acknowledged. The usual caveats apply. daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, or seasonal cycles), as well as spatial ones (urban, regional, national, global cycles). Adams, W.W. Obviously, the next step in this line of inquiry would be to References consider the role of nonrational numbers and their relationship to rational ones in reference to the chaotic sequence of decimals they possess (such as the sequence of decimals in 7). A second extension of this work might also be the use of these findings to better understand the role of approximations; necessary approximations found in the recordings of rational numbers might prove that all socio-spatial systems are properly to be characterized as “simulated or modeled” rather than “real.” In effect, this approximation might and Goldstein, L.J. (1976). Introduction to Number Theory, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Hao, B.L. (1983). Chaos, World Scientific, Singapore. Metropolis, M., Stein, M.L. and Stein, P.R. (1973). On finite limit sets for transformations on the unit interval, Journal of Combinatorial Theory, 15, 25-44. Morse, M. (1921). Recurrent geodesics on a surface of negative curvature, Trans. Am. Math. Soc., 22, 84--100. Niven, I. (1961). Numbers: Rational and Irrational, Random House, New York. Schroeder, M. (1991). Fractals, Chaos, Power Laws, W.H. Freeman and Co., New York. Thue, A. (1906). Uber die gegenseitige lage gleicher Teile gewisser Zeichenreichen, K. Nord. Vid. Skrifter I Nat (Oslo), 7, 1-22. Ulam, S. (1964). Computers, Special Issue on Mathematics and the Modern World, Scientific American, September,