Soul

DARGA -S 1D SOUL - 71 early Greeks did not have a sense of ‘self’.' They clearly did. Achilles knows very well who he is. His whole future has been determined CHAPTER THREE by a choice he himself has made, the choice of an early death. Aga- SOUL memnon and Odysseus are also quite aware of who they are. But what these heroes do is to take a sense of self for granted. There is no examination or analysis of this concept and there is no one term to express it fully. ' This situation, however, does not persist. What we can see in Greek Background In the previous chapter we discussed how the early Greeks viewed literature is that by the late fifth century a particular term has come psychological activity. We saw that they considered several psychic entities responsible for it. Predominant among these were noos, phrén, and thumos. Although often sharing many activities, these each disto designate the seat of personality or self. This term is psyché.2 Some degree of unification too has taken place with reference to psychological functions. Psyche becomes the seat of emotion, intellect, and play individual traits, matching facets of the psychological range that will.” Yet in Homer and much of early Greek literature it does not humans enjoy. With respect to intellectual activities, noos accounts for insight, phrenes for deliberation, thumos for energetic thinking that leads to action. All take part in emotion but particularly thumos. All ‘ye connected with volitional activities such as desiring, daring, wishing, or ordering. We saw too the way in which kradié, étor, and ker function at all in the living person as a psychic entity. A significant change has taken place in the meaning of this term. In this chapter functioned as ‘heart’. we will trace some stages in its transformation. Homer | If we can imagine how early Greeks saw their inner nature, we would see them observing these different psychic entities functioning to the others but possessing particular within. Each is distinct, similar traits. These entities exist to be relied upon and to be usetl but they are not in any way simply submissive. On the contrary, they have their own independent activity and sometimes need to be checked or In Homer psyché is mentioned over eighty-five times. In Hesiod it appears only once at W. & D. 686 but what is said of it here and in three fragments proves to be of interest. We shall focus mainly on Homer. In his poems psyché is mentioned in the living person only when death approaches or when a death-like condition, fainting, controlled. Nor do the early Greeks see a closed setting within. Instead, all the entities are open to the influence of outside forces. The gods can easily affect them in positive or negative ways. What would be apparent then to our observers would be a rich capacity for psychological activity deriving from sources with distinctive natures. As we watch these early Greeks looking within, we note something pointed out frequently in chapter 2: they have an identity distinct from these psychic entities. In their entirety these entities do not simply compose what we would call someone’s ‘personality’ or ‘self. It is true that individuals may find in each a seat of many of their deepest qualities but none adequately expresses the full person. Nor could any, since each proves vulnerable to many outside forces and itself frequently changes. As we mentioned also in chapter 2, this way of viewing psychological activities does not mean that the occurs. In the living person at these times psyché is not connected ! See chapter 2, note 2 for bibliography on this question. ? On psyché in Homer and Hesiod see Böhme, Bremmer, Burnet, Claus, Dihle, “Totenglaube”, Dodds, Frankel, Furley, Garland, ‘Causation’, Death, Gelzer (ch. 2. note 2), Harrison, H.G. Ingenkamp, ‘Inneres Selbst und Lebensträger’, Rh. M., 1975, vol, 118, pp. 48-61, Jaeger, Theology, Jahn, Krafft, M. McDonald, ‘Terms for “Life” se4s in Homer: An Examination of Early Concepts in Psychology’, Trans. and Stud., Coll, of Physicians of Philadelphia, 1982, vol. 4, pp. 26-58, Nehring, Onians, Otto, Redfield, O. Regenbogen, ‘Daimonion Psychés Phös’ in Kleine Schriften, Munich, 1961, pp. 1-28, Rohde, Riische, Schaufer, Snell, Discovery, S.D. Sullivan, ‘A Multi-Faceted Term: Psyché in Homer, the Homerjs Hymns, and Hesiod’, SIFC. 1988. vol. 6, pp. 151-180, Vivante, J. Warden, ‘Psyché in Homeric Death-Descriptions’, Phoenix, 1971, vol. 25, pp. 95-103. * This role of psyché has been frequently noted. See in particular Adkins, From the Many, pp. 62-4, Burnet, Claus, pp. 1-7, Furley, BICS, 1956, p. 1, W.K.C. Guthrie, vol. 3, pp. 467-9, Havelock, History, pp. 197-200 (1963 ed.), F. Solmsen, ‘Plato and the Concept of the Soul (Psyche): Some Historical Perspectives’, ZHI, 1983, vol. 44, pp. 355-67, and Snell, Discovery, p. 14.

SOUL with any psychological activity nor with a state of consciousness. Nor do we find it located in some specific part of the body. It does not, ally possible for them. But even the ‘buried’ psyché, weak and fragile. 78 therefore, think, feel, or will. But its presence within is none the less critical for life. If it departs or is lost, the individual dies. It consequently becomes an object of concern in situations of danger or approaching death. . When someone does die, there is a portion that survives: psyché. All else is lost with the body including the psychic entities responsible for psychological activities. Noos, phrén, thumos, kradié, étor, ker. all fade.* Psyche itself flies off to Hades where it has an unenviable existence as a pale shade, lacking all the energy and vitality that the living person possesses. But however limited its range of activity in the underworld, it is recognisably the person and alone preserves the individuality that had been present in the living body. If we examine the passages where psyché is mentioned in Homer, three meanings of the term emerge. First, it is connected with breath. The word psyché itself is likely derived from psychö, meaning ‘to blow’.’ This root suggests an association with air, in particular that which someone breathes. Psyché in fact appears to be the breath that endows the body with life. The necessity of such breath would have been universally recognised with its permanent loss evident as a sign of death. In their form as shades in the underworld, psychai are perhaps conceived of as ‘portions’ of air. . 79 enjoys some range of activity, however limited it may be. The third meaning of psyché is that of ‘life’, apparently without specific reference to air or to the shade in Hades. It acts as an ‘energy or ‘force’ that makes a person live. Usually it is taken for granted but, when threatened, its importance and value receive mention. Of these three meanings, none appears to be primary in Homer. As pointed out in chapter 1, the rich reservoir of formulaic oral poetry upon which Homer drew had a very long history. Over the centuries varying ideas, sometimes associated with the same term, appeared. An old meaning may have lingered as new ones were added. These ideas need not necessarily have been consistent with one another; they may even have been in conflict. As Homer repeated the formulas he had inherited, he would probably make no effort to offer a consistent or limited use of any terms in the language itself. Such a variety in range of meaning seems to have been present for psyché.° In early times, when some formulaic expressions were being fashioned, it may have signified a specific physical entity, such as air or breath. As time passed, it came, in addition, perhaps to signify the sole surviving portion of the human being and also the vital, life-giving energy in the living person. In different passages, different aspects of psyché may be present, sometimes one more obvious than another. Second, psyché signifies the part of the individual that survives death. This psyché in the underworld is called an ‘image’ or likeness' (eidölen) With regard to psyché, as we mentioned above, one question is crucial: how did it become in later authors so prominent a psychoof the person. Its motion is like that of a ‘shadow’ (ska). It may be that the shadow which a living person cast was the image the early Greeks had of psyché in the underworld. This shadow would have been thought to be made of dark air. It also perfectly resembled the individual. It would not be that this shadow during life was thought to be psyché, but when the latter left at the moment of death, its nature outside the body would match this shadow. Psyché as the ‘shade’ of the dead person varies in nature to some extent depending on whether the body has been buried or not. The ‘unburied’ shade appears to be capable of more activities than the ‘buried’ one. If ‘buried’ shades drink blood, as Odysseus allows them to do, they likewise acquire an extended range of activities not usulogical agent within the living person? A valuable suggestion has been made that psyché became such in imitation of thumos.” As we have seen in chapter 2, thumos functions in Homer and Hesiod as a seat of energy within the person and a psychic entity with a wide range of function. It is associated with many intellectual, emotional, and volitional activities. Already in certain passages of Homer psyché is linked with thumos where both appear to have the meaning of ‘life’. Someone is ‘deprived’ of ¿humos and psyché at the same time (JI, 11.334, Od. 21.154, 171). Being thus associated with thumos, psyché gradually, # * Once again we point out that in the spoken language of the time psyché may have had a more extended range of meaning. * Teiresias is the exception who keeps noos and phrenes (Od. 10.493-5). 3 On the etymology see bibliography in Bremmer, pp. 21-2, and Claus, p. 93 n. 3. ” See Harrison, p. 77, Jaeger, Theology, pp. 81-3, and Warden, Phoenix, 1971, pp.

SOUL it may be, took on activities connected with it. This suggestion postulates some degree of identification of psyché with thumos. Such an identification could perhaps lead to the psychological activities later 22.338). When Odysseus meets him in the underworld, Achilles presents a very different picture of psyché outside the living body: ‘better ascribed to psyché. to be a ‘hired labourer’ in the world of the living than the ‘king of This suggestion explains one possible source of the range of activities that psyche came to enjoy. It does not explain, however, why psyché ever became a psychological agent in the living person at all. the dead’ (Od. 11.488-92). 80 What seems to be of crucial importance in this regard is the role it had as shade of the dead. This psyché, it is true, was seen as a frail, feeble image of the living person, one having few powers or activities. But it was all that survived someone at death. Unlike psychic entities like noos, phrenes, and thumos, which perished with the body, it had a form of permanent existence, however unenviable in nature. In special circumstances its powers could be extended. The picture Homer gives of psychai in the underworld, each a recognisable person, speaking and acting as the individual might have done during life, probably proved a very strong influence on how psyché came to be seen in the living person. As a shade, if enhanced by blood, it could perform various functions. A transfer of this picture to its nature 81 the return of his body: these three are clearly judged most dear (Ji. Odysseus’ whole long journey home with all its wanderings and hardships is described as a quest in which he sought ‘to win his psyche’ (Od. 1.5). When he tried to escape from Polyphemus, Odysseus ‘wove all wiles and counsel, as in a situation concerning psyché’ (Od. 9.423). When Achilles pursued Hector around the walls of Troy, it was not simply for prizes awarded to runners but ‘for the psyché of Hector’ (7! 22.161). Elsewhere Achilles describes himself as ever ‘staking’ his psyché in fighting (//. 9.322). These passages show that people strive to keep psyché, being most precious, within the body. In each person a single psyché is to be found. Of Achilles it is said: ‘in him is one psyché and people say that he is mortal’ (//, 21.569). Even though Achilles may be a warrior terribly to be feared. he still has but one ‘vital energy’, one ‘life’ and only ‘one’ shade to fly to Hades. Psyché very much wishes to stay in the body. When Hector while in the body is one that could easily have been made. The rich died, ‘his psyché, flying from his limbs, went to Hades, bewailing her and varied picture of psyché in the underworld that Homer gives, therefore, contains clues for understanding why psyché changed the way it did. Let us look in more detail at what he shows us about if it must leave. In some way it perceives its loss, when it departs, psyche. fate, leaving manliness and youth’ (1. 22.362).? Psyche laments its fate and its own feeble nature. One reason that Achilles may have prized his psyché so greatly, while it was in his body (//. 9.401), is that there it enjoyed in his case too ‘manliness and youth’. These had to be Psyché in the Living Person . forfeited at death. Psyché, it appears, perceives in some degree the fragile and helpless state it will have in the underworld. It knows As we said above, psyché is referred to in the living individual only when death impends or a death-like state occurs. Psyché is not specifically placed in any region of the body. What we hear is that the what it is losing and will never have again. ‘throat’ is the location for the ‘swiftest destruction of psyche’ (Il. 22.325). This placement suggests the association of psyché with the ‘breath of life’, When it is mentioned in the living person, usually all three meanings of psyché are present. It is ‘breath’, ‘life’, and also the shade and a mist was poured over his eyes. He breathed again and the that will depart. Within the living, psyché has a very high value. Achilles, refusing in Book 9 to return to fight, says that all the wealth of Troy and Pytho ‘are not worth’ his psyché. It is the case, he says, that once psych ‘has passed the barrier of teeth”, it cannot be regained (11, 9.4019). It is by Achilles’ ‘psyché, knees, and parents’ that Hector requests Sometimes psyché can leave for a short time and return. This happens in fainting.'” At Il. 5.696-8 Sarpedon faints: ‘psyché left him North Wind... revived him, having breathed forth his thumos in an evil fashion.’ Here Sarpedon’s swoon is described in terms of the loss ® See too the description of the suitors ‘who were fighting for their psyche’ (Od. 22.245) and pirates who ‘hazard’ theirs (Od. 3.74). Hesiod says that for people who foolishly sail in the spring, ‘money’ has become psyché (W. ES D, 686); usually psyché would be the treasure. ? The same description is given of Patroclus at Ji. 16.856. On fainting see especially H. Nehring, ‘Homer’s Description of Syncopes’, CP, vol. 42, pp. 106-21 and Schnaufer, pp. 191-201.

SOUL 83 of both psyché and thumos. It illustrates the close association of the and ‘heads’ may have vitality and vigour, perhaps given by the body. two. Recovery comes from ‘breathing again’: psyché is drawn back into the body. Andromache also ‘breathes forth psychö’ when she faints This unique description of psyché suggests strength present in it; this at the news of Hector’s death (/l. 22.467). Her recovery takes place have its own powers. when ‘thumos is gathered into phren' (475). description also points to the future when psyché within the body will Finally, within the living, psyché is vulnerable to the actions of others. At the moment of death, psyché leaves in different ways. It can ‘speed away’, ‘hastening’ through a ‘stricken wound’ (1% 14.518). It Achilles instead ‘took away’ his ‘with the long-edged bronze’ (Il. can ‘pass’ through the ‘barrier of the teeth’ (Zi. 9.409), It can ‘fly’ 24.754). The bow of Odysseus can ‘rob princes of thumos and psyche’ Hector hoped to ‘take away’ the psyché of Achilles (Il. 22.257) but from the limbs (//. 16.856). Or it can simply ‘leave’ (Od. 18.91) and (Od. 21.154, 171). Psyché is the one element that must be present for ‘go down’ to Hades (/l. 7.330). All references are to psyché in a human being except for one where its departure results in the death of life. With its removal, death is inevitable. Thus, Odysseus says to a boar (Od. 14.426). Animals too can have psyché, ‘life’, but the continued existence of this psyché after death seems unlikely." Within the living person psyché is vulnerable in different ways. At Il. 1.3 the ‘anger’ of Achilles ‘cast many strong (iphthimos) psychai of heroes into Hades’. These psychai, present in the living, are clearly destined to become shades of the dead. In this passage Homer proceeds to contrast these psychai with the ‘heroes themselves’ whom could send you to the house of Hades’ (Od. 9.523). Once a person is describing the shades in Hades. Its significance lies in equating the Achilles left on the battlefield as prey for dogs and birds (1.4-5). person and the psyché that has been separated from the body. Later Polyphemus: ‘would that I, making you bereft of psyché and life (aiön), ‘bereft’ of psyché, existence is possible only as a shade in the underworld. It is as psyché that Polyphemus would go to Hades. In these lines we see an apparent identification of the pronoun ‘you’ and the form in which Polyphemus would appear among the dead. This identification seems quite natural and occurs frequently in passages This passage shows us that in Homer the body and various psychic the two will become closely associated within the living person. This entities are the location of someone’s psychological activities, strength, early identification may have been a and vigour; these stay with the hero on the battlefield.'? Psyché, as we have heard, leaves behind ‘manliness and youth’. While in the body, psyché was to have in the living. We shall discuss other instances of crucial factor in the new role this phenomenon below. however, these psychat are ‘strong’ or ‘powerful’. It is unusual in Homer for psyché to be described by an adjective. We hear of ‘one’ psyché (Il. 21.569), or psyché alone (Od. 11.543), or Psyche After Death ‘other’ psychai (Od. 11.541, 564) and, as we shall see below, several How were the inhabitants of the underworld spoken of by Homer? activities ascribed to psyché with participles (‘grieving’, e.g., or ‘la- We shall look in some detail at their nature as psychai. But other menting’). The adjective ‘strong’ (:phthimos), therefore, appearing with descriptions are given of them as well. In addition to being psychai, psyché at 1.3 is unique. Its meaning has been much discussed. Anthese inhabitants are also called ‘shades’, ski, that ‘flit about’ (Od. other passage sheds light on its usage with psyché. At Il. 11.55 Zeus 10.495). They are described too as an ‘image’ or ‘likeness’ (eidôlon) of ‘is about to cast many strong heads (iphthimo: kephalai) to Hades’. In the person (e.g., Od. 11.83). Individuals are thus recognizably themcontrast, in Hades, the dead are described as ‘heads’, but ‘powerless’ selves in their life apart from the body. These dwellers in Hades, as ones (Od. 10.521, e.g., or 11.29). Within the body, then, both ‘psychaz’ mentioned above, are also called ‘powerless heads of the dead’ (e.g. Od. 10.521). They are, frequently referred to as ‘dead bodies’ (e.g., !! As we noted in chapter 2, noos is rarely found in animals but phrenes and thumos are. See in chapter 2 notes 20, 54, 86, and 94. . !? On the nature of the body in Homer see especially R. Renchan, ‘The Meaning of Soma in Homer: A Study of Methodology’, CSCA, 1979, vol. 12, pp. 269-82. 13 See in particular Claus, pp. 61-2, and J. Warden ‘Jphthimos: A Semantic Analysis’, Phoenix, 1969, vol. 23, pp. 143-58. Od. 11.49) or ‘senseless corpses’ (Od. 11.475). Odysseus tries to embrace Anticleia, his mother, but she flies from his arms ‘like a shadow or a dream’ (Od. 11.206-8). What the dead lack is any ‘firm strength or might’ (Od. 11.393). Their powers are very limited and their condition, a negative one.

SOUL 85 Turning now to psyché, we find more detail about its existence in and those having drunk blood. In a category by themselves are the Hades. Very important for this information will be Books 11 and 24 of the Odyssey, the First and Second Nekyia, in which a picture of shades described in the opening of Book 24 of the Odyssey (the Second Nekyia). First, then, ‘unburied’ shades. These include Patroclus, the underworld is given. Serious problems exist concerning the composition of these portions of the Odyssey." For our purposes, however, it will suffice to present an overview of the evidence as found Achilles: ‘there came the psyche of wretched Patroclus, like to himself in our texts. skin was it clothed. It stood above his head and spoke a word to Elpenor, and the suitors. At Z. 23.65-101, Patroclus appears to in all things, size, fair eyes, and voice, and in such clothes about its dead. Psychai are huge in number, including all categories of people him’. The psyché of Patroclus resembles him as he was in body, shape, and dress. It sounds like him and can speak. When it does, it reveals (Od. 11.36-43). They are called the images (eidöla) of the dead (11. more about its condition. Patroclus believes that Achilles has forgot- 23.72, Od. 24.14). They are too insubstantial to be embraced (Ui. ‘to utter a shrill cry’ (trizó) is used as well in Homer to describe the ten him (69-70). He apparently has no knowledge of the elaborate games being held in his honour. He tells how he has to wander outside Hades because his body is unburied (71-4). He retains his affection for Achilles and expresses sorrow and pity for their plight as mortals (75-9). He refers also to Achilles’ death (80-1). He gives orders about how he himself is to be buried, recalling precisely desound of bats (Od. 24.6-8). What may be indicated is the shrill squeaktails of his own life (82-92). Certain passages give a general description of the psychai of the 23.100). Astit leaves for the underworld, psyché ‘utters a shrill cry” (Il 23.101). It moves ‘like smoke’ (Z. 23.100) or ‘like a dream’ (Od. 11.222). These descriptions of the sound psyché makes and the way it moves very much point to its nature as breath or air. The verb expressing ing of air being forced out. We might hear this sound, for instance, This psyché of Patroclus, however, lacks any substance that would from a balloon as it is gradually emptied. Motion ‘like smoke’ or ‘a allow Achilles to embrace him. When Achilles tries, psyché ‘flies bedream’ suggests a composition of dark air, insubstantial, ethereal, and neath the earth, uttering a shrill cry’ (100-1). In its departure psyché swift. no longer sounds like the person, but instead like the dark air that Of shades in general Achilles says: ‘in the house of Hades in some it is. Achilles sums up the behaviour of this shade of Patroclus: ‘all way psyché and etdélon are present, but phrenes are not there at all’ (77. night long the psyché of wretched Patroclus stood over me, lamenting 23.104). Here psyché and eidölon are mentioned as parallel terms: and grieving, and he gave me orders on each thing and was won- ‘breath’ and the ‘image’ or ‘likeness’ of the individual remain after drously like himself” (106-7). death. But phrenes are absent: the psychological activities a person enjoyed, namely, thought, emotion, will, are lost with the body. These other shades. Because his body is unburied, he can apparently draw psychai appear to be weak, fragile entities. They can be summoned; upon it for some abilities. Other shades can move and express emo- Patroclus as psyché has a distinct range of activities missing in most they can be led (Od. 24.100); they can be ‘scattered’ (Od. 11.385). tion. Patroclus can do more. He comes specifically to Achilles, recog- But, however insubstantial they are, they are still individually recognising him. He speaks with a voice like his living voice. He knows nisable as the person who once was alive. This feature will be that Achilles too is going to die. He expresses emotions of affection significant in their later role as the seat of personality in the person. and sorrow with some intensity. He gives orders emphatically and Concerning these shades of the dead, we can speak of three catclearly. He recalls details of his life exactly. Yet he has no knowledge egories; those ‘unburied’, those ‘buried’ but not having drunk blood, of what Achilles has been doing to honour him after his death nor does he perceive why his body has not been buried. He has no '* On the First and Second Nekyia see especially A Commentary on Homer's Odyssey, Oxford, 1988-92, vol. 2 (eds A. Heubeck and A. Hoekstra), pp. 73-7, and vol. 3 {eds J. Russo, M. Fernandez-Galiano, and H. Heubeck), pp. 53-8, 356-9. 'S On this topic see in particular Bremmer, pp. 70-124, Dihle, ‘Totenglaube’, pp. 14-20, Garland, BICS, 1981, p. 43, Way of Death, pp. 1-2, 68-9, and Schnaufer, pp. 58-124. substance that could make an embrace possible. His time with Achilles is short and, in his departure, he resembles other shades in movement and sound. This picture of Patroclus is of great significance. His psyché possesses special characteristics because it is unburied. But these charac-

SOUL teristics will come to be present in psyché as a psychological agent in possible, for others the drinking of blood proves to be necessary first. In this description of Agamemnon such a capacity is present. Anticleia, the living person. It knows; it feels; it expresses its will. We have a clear foreshadowing of its later involvement in intellectual, emotional, and volitional activities. . Another unburied shade is that of Elpenor, who met his death falling from a roof in the house of Circe (Od. 10.552). Unlike Patroclus, he is not kept out of Hades by the other shades even though he too is unburied (Od. 11.51). This psyché of Elpenor is the first to meet Odysseus in the underworld and this may be so because he is still unburied. His psyché has a range of capacities. He recognises Odysseus (51) and is able to address him (59, 83). He feels sorrow (59). He wants burial, not in order to enter Hades, but to prevent any need to return to plague Odysseus (72-3). He makes requests of Odysseus (66) and asks him to remember him (71). He also gives Odysseus orders (73-8). He knows where Odysseus is going (69). This range of activities closely resembles that possessed by Patroclus. Once again, such capacities associated with psyché foreshadow how it will itself be described one day in the living person. The suitors too, as they are led by Hermes down to Hades, retain 87 the mother of Odysseus, gives a vivid description of these shades of the dead: ‘for the sinews no longer hold flesh and bones, but the strong might of blazing fire overpowers them when first thum:s leaves the white bones, and psyché, like a dream, flying away, flutters about’ (219-22). These psychai are capable of some emotion. Agamemnon’s shade . ‘comes, grieving’ (387). The psyché of Ajax stands apart by itself, ‘angry’ because Odysseus won the arms of Achilles (543). Odysseus too says of him that ‘not even in death was he to forget his anger’ (554) and calls on him ‘to subdue his rage (menos) and proud thumos’ (562). Without drinking blood, Ajax is able, it appears, to recognise Odysseus. He also nurtures his anger, so great that Odysseus applies terms used for the living person in referring to it, namely menos and thumos. Ajax, as a helpless shade, can harm Odysseus in no way but he can still remember just cause for anger and experience this emotion. Another shade Odysseus meets is that of his mother: ‘she sits in silence near the blood, nor does she dare to look at her son face to certain abilities (Od. 24.1 f.) before their burial (417). Like Elpenor, face nor to address him’ (141-2). In this description we have the they are allowed to enter the underworld. They ‘follow’ and ‘go’ essence of the ‘unburied’ shade before drinking blood. It cannot speak. with Hermes, ‘uttering a shrill cry’ (5, 9). They ‘find’ the shade of Achilles, apparently recognising him. One of their number, Am- It does not recognise Odysseus.'® It is frail and weak. Our next category will be shades who have drunk blood. This phimedon, is able to address Agamemnon’s shade. Amphimedon vividly recalls details of the death of the suitors and knows that his blood gives back to psyché a portion of the body and the capacities the body was thought to have. What we see is the acquisition in body is still unburied. Once again we see capacities that psyché in the particular of psychological activities usually connected with noos, phrén, living person will come to exhibit. In our treatment of psyché as shade of the dead, our second catthumos, kradié, étor, and ker. This blood gives the power of understanding and communication. It allows Teiresias to utter his prophecies egory includes buried psychai before they have drunk blood. In Z. 23.72 we hear of such shades that they keep the psyché of Patroclus (150). Even though Teiresias is a special case because, alone among the dead, he has ‘steadfast phrenes’ and ‘noos’ (Od. 10.491-5), he still needs blood to share his knowledge of the future. This blood allows away from the house of Hades and ‘do not allow him to mingle across the river’. They apparently can recognise the unburied nature Achilles to recognise Odysseus and, with lament, to speak ‘winged of Patroclus’ psyché and exert some force in keeping it apart. words’ (471). In his speech he shows concern for his father and son In Od. 11 (the First Nekyia), we see various characteristics of these (492-503). At Odysseus’ praise of Neoptolemus, Achilles reacts with shades. They can move about. They can gather together, sometimes joy and departs ‘with long strides over the fields of asphodel’ (538- around an individual psyché (36, 388). At 388 we find a picture of 40). Other psychai likewise gain the power of speech from blood. They shades attending Agamemnon: ‘other psychai were gathered around stand ‘grieving’ and ‘ask’ about those dear to them (541). Agamemnon, however many died with him in the house of Aegisthus and met their fate’. Just as in life these shades attend their king whom they are still able to recognise. One inconsistency we find in the picture of shades given in Homer Ys that for some recognition is 16 We have noted, however, that some shades do have powers of recognition, as, for example, Ajax. Homer is not consistent about this capacity in the shades.

SOUL When they have drunk blood, psychai recall relationships on earth. They are filled with sorrow. They do not know what has happened easily from noun to personal pronoun or to proper name. A few to their relatives but they remember them and enquire about them. Once again we see psyché enhanced with powers that it will later 89 is the identification Homer makes of psyché and person. He transfers examples will suffice. First, Anticleia. Once she has drunk blood, she changes from the helpless psyché with no powers described above (Od. have in the living person. 11.141). Then it is ‘she’ who recognises her son Odysseus and speaks Our last category is made up of the psychai described in Od. 24 (the Second Nekyia). These are able to carry on some functions made to him, in grief (153-4). It is ‘she’ who knows of Penelope's loyalty possible only by blood in Od. 11 (the First Nekyia). Thus we hear that these psychai can ‘address’ each other (23, 35). In the speeches his condition (180-96). Second, Agamemnon. It is ‘he’, having drunk Agamemnon gives in the opening lines, he recalls with clarity Achildesiring to reach Odysseus, who answers, recalls his own death, and les’ funeral (35-94), his own friendship with Amphimedon (114-19), asks about Orestes (11.390-456). and the evil deeds of Clytemnestra (199-202). These shades can also ‘recognise’ each other. Achilles and Agamemnon know who each other and sorrow, of Telemachus and his behaviour, and of Laertes and blood, who recognises Odysseus, who weeps, stretches forth his hands, So too in Book 11 we encounter ‘Minos’ administering justice among the dead who ask for judgements (11.569-70). ‘Tityus’, ‘Tanis and quickly perceive who the dead suitors are (101). These psychai, talus’, and ‘Sisyphus’ all pay in Hades for their crimes against the without reference to blood, have a somewhat extended range of activity. If the lines of the Second Nekyia come from the same rich reserve of formulaic epic tradition as the rest of Homer, we see psyché already capable of some breadth of activity, at least among the dead. As mentioned above, Teiresias is a special case in the underworl d gods (11.576-600). In each case it is the person himself who is desince he still has noos and phrenes (Od. 10.492). Without drinking blood, he is able to recognise Odysseus and to speak to him (11.90-1) . Once he has drunk blood, he prophesies. This picture of psyche with noos and phrenes may have influenced its later absorption of functions asscribed as carrying on these activities. The eidölon of Heracles appears too in the underworld. But it is ‘he’ who ‘glares terribly’, speaks, and goes back into Hades (11.606-8, 615-27). All these passages show ways in which psyché and person could be identified in Hades, adumbrating the role psyché came to have in the person when alive. Summary of Psyché in Homer sociated with these two psychic entities. We have suggested above that the nature of each shade as recognisably the person probably had great importance in the emer- We have looked at psyché in the living person and as a shade of the dead. In the case of the latter, not surprisingly, we found some ingence of psyché as the bearer of personality in living individuals. Psyche was the only part of the human being that continued to exist after consistencies in portrayal. The rich tradition of oral poetry, which death.” Even though its life in the underworld was one of deprivathis entity that enlivens the human being and survives death. tion of all the vitality, energy, and psychological range that presence in the body made possible, psyché lived on. Its very nature was acts as a source for Homer, provided, it seems, varying ideas about Psyché has a wide range of activities in its different forms. Even in ‘life’, the living person, where its importance is not emphasized except when ‘breath’, or ‘air’ and this did not cease to be. As the sole surviving death threatens, it has different ways of leaving the person. As a portion of the person, psyché would later become in the living the shade, its activities vary. Without blood it can move and experience principal bearer of traits of character. emotion. In the Second Nekyia (opening of Book 24), likewise, with- Another important factor, as we suggested also above, in the emergence of psyché with psychological functions in the living person out blood, it can recognise other shades and speak. After drinking blood, it can move, Tecagnise others, speak, feel emotions, and prophesy. When its body has not been buried, psyché can show emotion, 1 Certain fortunate individuals escape the fate of death. Menelaus is not to die but to go alive to the Elysian Fields where Rhadamanthus is also present (Od. 4.5628). Heracles’ eidólon is in Hades but ‘he himself” is among the gods (Od. 11.601). speak, know, remember, express desires, and give orders. The body and blood give psyché several powers. They may make it suitably called ‘strong’ (iphthimos).

SOUL No one would deny that psyché, as shade of the dead, was gener- There are only eighteen occurrences of psyché in these poets (apart from Pindar and Bacchylides, see below).'® Several echo the Homeric usage with a particular emphasis on the meaning of ‘life’. Archilochus ally regarded as a frail, feeble image of the living person, having few powers or activities. But only it survived death. Unlike noos, phrenes, thumos, kradié, étor, and kér, that perished with the body, it had a form of permanent existence, however unenviable in nature. Its activities were not totally limited and, in special circumstances, its powers could 91 in the seventh century, probably referring to sea-farers, describes those who ‘hold their psychai in the arms of the waves’ (213). These individuals choose to place their ‘lives’ in danger. Solon in the early be extended. When this happened, shades proved capable of intelsixth century also describes the sea-farer: he is one who ‘places no lectual, emotional, and volitional activities. A special individual like sparing of his psyché’ (13). The image here is of a person treating his Teiresias, even as a shade, had noos and phrenes that made such acpsyché, his ‘breath’ or ‘life’, like an enemy. He shows no mercy to it tivities possible for him. as he takes bold chances. Especially important in the Homeric picture of psyché are the indications it gives of how this entity could later become a psychological Tyrtaeus in the seventh century urges soldiers to fight in his elegies. He twice mentions psyché as the ‘life’ to be expended, if necesagent within the individual. When person and psyché are easily identified with regard to activities in Hades, we can-see how psyché sary, in battle. He too uses the image of ‘not sparing psyché’ (10.14). itself, when present within the living person, could also come to have enemy. ‘Not to spare psyché’ is to treat it within as the foe. ‘Loving psyché’ is to ‘spare it’, to protect life and play perhaps the coward. In 11.5 Tyrtaeus specifically calls on soldiers ‘to treat psyché as the foe a range of functions. Homer handed on to his listeners a general impression of what psyché was like. It was something insubstantial, dream-like, frail, and weak but able to become ‘strong’ in some cir- Soldiers are not to ‘love their lives’ (philopsyched) as they fight the (echthros) and the black spirits of death as dear as the rays of the sun’. cumstances. In later years psyché became ‘strong’ in yet a more vivid Psyché is to become ‘hated’ or ‘hateful’ and treated as the enemy. fashion, as a psychological agent in the living person. happening, as suggested above, is that psyché, capable of certain activities in the underworld and easily identified there with the person, Tyrtaeus calls for a generous expenditure of ‘life’. A reputation for courage and daring is to be considered of higher value than psyché.!° Theognis in the late sixth century likewise refers to psyché as ‘life’. He speaks of ‘cares that take hold of people, cares having variegated wings and weeping for psyché and biotos’ (730). The two terms are close in meaning, psyché probably indicating the ‘life-principle’, biotos, ‘physical sustenance’ or ‘livelihood’. People are harassed with different concerns, basically those related with helping them stay alive. Simonides in the early fifth century also too refers to psyché as ‘life’. He speaks of a child ‘breathing forth her sweet psyché’ (553). Precious while in her body, this ‘life’ is sadly lost. Only twice does psyché signify the ‘shade of the dead’ in the lyric and elegiac poets. At 710 Theognis describes ‘the dark gates that restrain the psychai of the dead, even though they say no’. These begins to exhibit a similar range in the living. Perhaps in imitation of thumos and other psychic entities, it takes on functions long assoseems, of their condition and long to leave. They ‘say no’ or ‘refuse’ Lyric and Elegiac Poets In the lyric and elegiac poets we begin to see changes in the way in which psyché was viewed. In some passages, naturally enough, the Homeric sense of psyché is present. But an extended use of psyché appears in other instances and its role as psychological agent within the person starts to emerge. No longer is psyché mentioned only when death threatens or a death-like condition occurs. Instead a person relates in a more expanded way to psyché during life. What may be ciated with them. In due course these come to include emotional, intellectual, and volitional activities. Such activities, of course, may shades do not wish fo stay in Hades. They have some awareness, it have been long associated with psyché in the spoken language of early 8 On psyche in the lyric and elegiac poets sec Adkins, From the Many, Claus, Dihle, ‘Totenglaube’, Furley, Jarcho, Onians, S.D. Sullivan, ‘The Extended Use of Psyche Greece. The evidence we examine is of a particular, restricted kind. in the Greek Lyric and Elegiac Poets (excluding Pindar and Bacchylides)', Parola del Passato, 1989, vol. 44, pp. 241-62, ‘The Wider Meaning of Psyche in Pindar and But however old the wider sense of psyché, it becomes noticeable in the poetry of the lyric and elegiac poets. Bacchylides’, SZFC, 1991, vol. 4, pp. 163-83, Treu. At 12.15-18 Tyrtaeus again praises one who ‘puts forth’ psyché in fighting.

SOUL but no exit is available to them. Simonides in Epigram 70 P also 93 himself: ‘never have I betrayed any friend or faithful comrade nor is refers to psychai as shades destined to dwell in Hades: ‘alas, grievous there anything slavish in my psyché’, Theognis’ moral nature is condisease, why do you begrudge psychai to abide in lovely youth?’ Psychai prove vulnerable to disease which hastens their departure. cerned. ‘Nothing slavish’ may imply intellectual, emotional, and vo- In other passages of the lyric and elegiac poets we encounter an longer does psyché simply endow life; it has characteristics that can litional aspects. These are now thought to be found in psyché. No extended meaning of psyche, In a humorous poem, 39, Hipponax, writing in the late sixth century, relates directly to his psyché: ‘I will lead to admirable behaviour. give my much-enduring psyché to evils’. He will do this, if he fails to beings. Since we do not know how long we shall live, should we spend much money or little? At 910-11 he describes his reaction to receive ingredients to make up a potion that is a ‘medicine for a In another passage Theognis ponders a dilemma facing human miserable condition’. Psyché appears to be a seat of Hipponax’s ‘sufferthe problem: ‘this situation has aroused great grief in me and I am ing’. In addition, it could also mean ‘life’. Only rarely do adjectives bitten in my psyché and I hold my thumos in two directions’. Psyché appear with psyché in the lyric and elegiac poets. This one suggests serves as an entity within Theognis that acts as a location of pain. In an important role for psyché in the body. Either it is his ‘life’ marked this it resembles other psychic entities that were often affected by with ‘hardship’ or it is an entity within acting as psychological agent distress. Homer specifically speaks of phrenes ‘bitten’ by a word of that ‘endures much’. Sarpedon (11. 5.493). Psyché may, of course, retain too in this passage This poem is one of exaggerated humour but it reveals a new way its association with ‘life’, appropriate in a context where the hidden of referring to psyché in the living person. Psyché can be a seat of awareness and endurance, one that can be given over to such ‘evils’. Hipponax’s mood will depend on whether he surrenders psyché to nature of the human life-span is the topic discussed. ‘evils’ or not. Either he will be in a bad state or, if he keeps psyché whether to save or to spend his money; he decides at line 924 that from ‘evils’, he will be in a better condition, helped by the potion he living within one’s means is best. Thumos here acts as a location of In this passage Theognis also ‘holds his ¿humos in two directions”. In the lines that follow. he proceeds to say that he cannot decide drinks. Alcaeus, writing earlier in the sixth century, in poem 335 thought or deliberation and it is a ‘divided’ one. Psyche and thumos do speaks of ‘not surrendering thumos to evil. We see then a parallel not appear to be synonymous in this passage. The first is a seat of usage. Psyché is beginning to be referred to like ¿humos. Its role in the living person is becoming apparent. When Homer speaks of somepain, the second, of thought. But, as happens elsewhere, the two are one ‘giving psyché (as at Il. 5.654 or 16.625), he refers to the motook on functions that thumos also could perform and thus came to ment of death. The living person now exerts control over psyché which act as a psychological agent in the living person. abides within as a seat of emotion. Anacreon in the sixth century likewise suggests an important role for psyché in the living person. In 360 he says: ‘boy with virgin glance, role in the living person has become greater than in Homer or Hesiod. mentioned together.” Such linking may suggest that psyché gradually Simonides too presents a picture of psyché that suggests that its In poem 8 (discussed in chapter 2 under thumos), he speaks of the you I seek but you do not heed, not realising that you are the charifoolishness of young people who never imagine that death or old age oteer of my psyché’. In this passage psyché may have the traditional will come. Instead, these people live on false hope, planning things seat of that will not take place. He ends the passage by saying: ‘nor do they Anacreon's feelings of love and desire. The metaphor is a vivid one: Homeric meaning of ‘life’. But it may be more, namely a know how short is the time of youth and life for mortals. But you, the boy is a charioteer, psyché, the object of his control. In Homer a learning these things, endure to the end of your life (biotos), delightperson could exert influence over the psyché of another but the effect ing your psyché with good things’ (8.12-13). was to inflict death. Here the boy exerts power over how Anacreon In this passage psyché may have the traditional Homeric sense of feels. His power is so great that psyché. the seat of ‘life’, becomes painfully involved. Theognis relates psyché to inner qualities. At 529-30 he describes % See I. 11.334, Od. 21.154, 171; Tyr. 10, 12.

SOUL ‘life’. Since the years human beings have are few, they should bring delight into ‘life’, if they can, because these years often prove also to be something to be endured. Psyché, however, may be more. It may indicate an entity that functions as a seat of pleasure in the person. It can affect how a person feels and reacts. In stark contrast to Tyrtaeus who consistently urges a generous expenditure of psyché, Simonides calls for an indulgence of it, one that will make the span association of it with moral behaviour. We have moved now into the There he encounters Meleager who ‘knows him well’ (77) and can of life, all too short, more enjoyable. speak to him. He warns Heracles ‘not to send in vain a cruel arrow 94 95 fifth century and psyché within is a vibrant presence influencing strongly who a person is. Among the twenty-four instances of psyché in these two poets several indicate the shade of the dead. This is particularly true in Bacchylides Ode 5 which treats Heracles’ trip to the underworld. In these passages from the lyric and elegiac poets, we see psyché against the psyché of the dead’ (81). These psychai can do no harm with traditional Homeric meanings. But we see too a change: psyché nor threaten Heracles in any way. Meleager describes a battle in the has become important not only when death approaches but during life. It is now associated with certain emotions: joy, love, pain. It is of the enemy and bring death to whomever fate wishes’ (133). Only upper world where ‘blind weapons go from hands against the psychai in the living are psychat vulnerable. related to qualities in a person. It resembles in these agents some activities that we heard the shades of the dead carried on in Homer. It thus begins to have functions like those of other psychic entities, perhaps thumos in particular, with which it is mentioned three times. One feature, however, of psyché seems especially prominent in these Meleager tells also of his own death, caused by his mother’s cruel burning of the log designating his life-span. ‘My sweet psyché grew less and I knew, alas, that my strength was failing; wretched I wept as I breathed my last, leaving behind glorious youth’. We see here poets, one that may also set it apart from other psychic entities: its the association of psyché with ‘life’ and ‘breath’. Meleager describes association with ‘life’. Even as it comes slowly to express a full range psyché as ‘sweet’. He views psyché as a precious entity in his youthful of psychological activities, it strongly retains the sense of being that body. He mourns its loss as we heard in Homer the psyché of Patroclus which endows a person with life. This was its role in the living perand Hector doing as it bewailed its fate in losing ‘manliness and son in Homer and Hesiod and may have been the same, perhaps, in youth’ (1. 16.856, 22.362). Its nature in the underworld differs greatly, the long epic tradition that preceded them. A person’s natural inbeing now weak and frail. stinct is to preserve psyché, to treat it well, since it is all too soon lost. Pindar too speaks of psyché as the ‘life’ lost in death. He describes When individuals must fight, they must also be encouraged to give Achilles: ‘by arrows losing his psyché in battle he, burning in fire, up generously that which they might cherish and hold too dear. For made lamentation arise from the Greeks’ (Pyth. 3.102). He tells Megas them psyché must become ‘hateful’ and not to be ‘spared’. In other that once psyché has left the body, ‘it is not possible for one to bring * circumstances the call is for psyché to be indulged since this will make it back again’ (Nem. 8.44). In Js. 1.68 he gives a negative description days sweeter. Psyché thus appears to take on greater significance within of the person who nurtures a ‘hidden wealth’ while he is alive: ‘he the living person and to have a new capacity of affecting a person’s se. does not realise that he is paying tribute of his psyché to Hades without glory’. Each person must surrender psyché, ‘life-soul’, to Hades as nature and moods. ‘tribute’, but apparently has the choice of doing this with ‘glory’ or not. Because of a lack of generosity in using wealth, which should Pindar and Bacchylides serve as a means of facilitating high achievement, this individual fails to achieve “glory'.% He differs greatly from Achilles who always ‘risked In these two epinician poets, we see the same pattern as in the other lyric and elegiac poets.?! But even more does psyché emerge as a psychological agent within the individual. In particular we see an 2 On psyché in Pindar and Bacchylides see above note 18. 2 Simonides also calls psyché ‘sweet’ (553). Pindar describes phrén as ‘sweet to mingle among fellow-drinkers’ (Pyth. 2.26). Psyche is thus spoken of in a way in which phren also is. This may likewise suggest an extended role for psyché in the living person. # See too on Nem. 9.32 discussed below.

SOUL. his psyché’ in battle for the sake of a noble reputation (// 9.322). A person can control the way in which psyché can depart: with or without honour.?* We hear in this instance the traditional Greek view that glory and high achievement are of great value since death and the unenviable existence of Hades await everyone (see further, chaprecall ‘in what battles, during wars, he stood his ground with stead- 96 ter 4 below). Another traditional sense of psyché we find in Pindar is his description of that in animals. As mentioned above, Homer refers to the psyché of a boar (Od. 14.426). References to the psyché of animals are not common in early Greek literature but the absence of these is probably due to the fact that few contexts treat them rather than to any assumption that psyché, ‘life’, was not to be found in them. No assumption of any continued existence, however, of the animal after death seems likely. Pindar refers twice to the death of snakes in terms of loss of psyché (Ol. 8.39, Nem. 1.47). In other passages of Pindar and Bacchylides we find an extended role for psyché in the living person. At Pyth. 4.122 Pindar says of 97 fast psyché’. Elsewhere we hear of a ‘steadfast thumos’ (Hom., Il. 5.670, Tyr. 12.18). Psyche here functions like ¿humos in these earlier passages, acting as a seat of daring or courage. Hieron does not flinch; the spirit within remains firm. . In another passage we hear of the psyché of Apollo (Pyth. 3.41). As he rescues Asclepius from the funeral pyre of his mother Coronis, he says: ‘no longer will I endure in my psyché to kill my child’. Psyche here may function as the seat of Apollo’s deliberation concerning what to do. For a time it was the location of his determination to allow the death of his child. This changes and he saves his son. Here, within the god, psyché acts as the centre of resolve. It seems closely related to Apollo’s character. We heard above that failure to spend generously can cause a person to give psyché to Hades without honour (/s. 1.68). At Nem. 9.32 Pindar approves of a generous use of wealth. He describes the men of the house of Chromius as ‘having psychai stronger than their possessions’. Aeson, father of Jason: ‘he rejoiced about his psyché, seeing his exceptional son’. Psyché here functions as a seat of joy in the glad father. At Nem. 9.39 Pindar speaks in general of soldiers: ‘few are powerful in hands and psyché to turn the cloud of carnage at their feet towards the ranks of the enemy’. Psyché serves as a centre of The love of gain does not hinder them from making sacrifices in courage that allows daring in fighting. It is associated too with ‘planning’ that apparently permits some form of calm behaviour during battle. ‘Powerful in psyché’ suggests inner qualities, ones that serve become a centre of positive features of character. order to win ‘glory’ (33-4). Again psyché appears to be a seat of inner qualities. This psyché is not overcome by greed but leads individuals to act with open hands. They vividly contrast those for whom Hesiod had said ‘money is psyché (W. & D. 686). In the living, psyche has Bacchylides too relates psyché to character. At 11.48 he describes the daughters of Proteus: ‘with still girlish psyché, they went into the well in a crisis. temenos of Hera. There they boasted excessively about the wealth At Js. 4.53 b Pindar describes Heracles as ‘short in stature, unflinching in psyche’. Here again psyché serves as a seat of courage. ‘Unflinching’ suggests the presence of emotional, intellectual, and of their father. The adjective ‘girlish’ tells us of the ages of the young women and gives an explanation, or perhaps an excuse, for their foolish behaviour. This psyché is apparently one that can change. If volitional aspects in psyché, ones that contribute to Heracles’ brave the girls had been older, they might have acted more prudently. As actions. In this passage we find a contrast between Heracles’ physical stature and the spirit within that drives him on, the latter appara ‘girlish’ psyché matures, it evidently gains wisdom. Psyché functions ently considered superior. In this case his relation to psyché proves to be the crucial factor in his behaviour. At Pyth. 1.48 Pindar asks whether Hieron, king of Sicily. would prominently here in the girls in their youth. It strongly affects how they behave. . In one passage, Pindar addresses psyché in the vocative (Pyth. 3.612). He says: ‘do not; dear psyché, hasten after immortal life but exhaust the means that can be done’. These lines follow other advice that Pindar gives: ‘we must seek what is fitting from the gods with # Cf. fr. 123 where a possible reading of psyché would give a description of someone ‘nurturing’ it ‘with womanly courage’. This person, interested chiefly in making money, guards psyché, never risking it. Pindar probably believes that this person too will give up this psyché to Hades ‘without glory’. our mortal phrenes, knowing what is before our feet’ (59-60).7 In the * See the discussion of this passage above in chapter 2.

SOUL 99 same ode, he says of himself: ‘I will be small among the small, great among the great. I will honour the divine spirit (daimün) that follows my phrenes, and keep it according to my means.’ In this ode Coronis and Asclepius both desired what they could not have. They failed to recall their human limitations or to show regard for the ‘means’ at their disposal. Asclepius, in particular, in returning to life a person already destined for death stepped outside the bounds of appropriate three in Hades, ‘the other side’. If people keep psyché from injustice human behaviour. during three lives on earth, they escape the cycle of rebirth añd can Pindar tells his ‘dear psyché’ not to ‘hasten after immortal life (bios). Instead, it should turn its energies to what can be accomplished. psychai will have a favourable existence, very unlike the usual picture What Pindar says is rich in meaning because psyché was traditionally associated with life. In some ways it might even be thought to have a form of ‘immortal life’ since it alone survived a person after death and never ceased to exist. But the ‘immortal life’ Pindar refers to here lies outside the range of psyché, even if it mistakenly should pursue it. This is a ‘life’, with its attendant powers, that only the gods have. Psyche then acts as an entity that can express desire, even excessive desires. It can apparently aim at what would be out of reach. In doing so, Pindar suggests, it could prove harmful to him. In this passage, Pindar addresses psyché much in the same way as the lyric and elegiac poets address ¿humos and as he himself does in four passages.’ Pindar also addresses phrén directly (Pae. 4.50). Like these psychic entities psyché has come to occupy an important position in the living person. Individual and psyché remain distinct but psyché can exert considerable influence upon what someone does. It seems capable of independent action within. Opposition between person and psyché is apparently possible. In this passage it needs to be cautioned concerning the goals it may have. In an unusual passage, Pindar mentions psyché in the context of the transmigration of souls. We will discuss this topic more fully with the Presocratics in this chapter. Olympians 2, written for Theron of Acragas in Sicily, may indicate by its emphasis a great interest in this particular topic in Sicily. As we heard in chapter 2, Empedocles, likewise from Sicily, expressed views on this subject. Pindar says: ‘those who, remaining on the other side, have endured three times tq keep their psyché entirely from unjust deeds travel the road of Zeus to the tower of Kronos’ (70). The meaning of ‘three times’ is obscure but Pindar probably refers to three periods of existence on earth and travel to the ‘tower of Kronos’. This ‘tower’ implies a location where of the underworld. Here we have elements of the traditional picture of psyché. It alone survives death and travels to Hades. But it has acquired new characteristics. It acts as the seat of someone’s moral qualities. It comes under the control of the living person. Someone can help or harm psyché in the journey it must make depending on a choice or avoidance of ‘unjust deeds’. If a person fails to keep psyché from such deeds, it must apparently return again and again to another earthly existence. The minimum this earthly existence appears to be is three lives, all marked by justice. For someone alive, therefore, psyché acts as a seat of moral qualities, remaining distinct from the person. At death, this same psyché survives, alone preserving the person’s individuality and identity. It retains too, it seems, a ‘record’ of the moral behaviour it has engaged in while in the living person. It goes through periods of existence and escapes transmigration only after three just periods of existence on earth. In the living individual, person and psyché appear to be distinct. Yet in the picture of the final destiny awaiting humans, Pindar identifies person and psychö. He uses the pronoun ‘they’ in speaking of those destined to travel to the ‘tower of Kronos’. ‘They’ achieve this destiny by the way in which they control psyché during life. Yet surely it must be psyché that makes this journey, since it alone survives death, As Homer did earlier, Pindar easily identifies individual and psyche. % Note that in earlier poets it is often thumos that is called ‘dear’ (see chapter 2). In this regard too psyché has come to resemble thumos, the most active of the psychic entities. It resembles ¿tor and ker, likewise called ‘dear’. Pindar also addresses étor as ‘dear’ (Ol. 1,4, Pa. 6.12). 27 See chapter 2, notes 56 and 88 and see Ol. 2.89, Nem. 3.26, frs 123.1, 127.4. 22 On this passage see N. Demand, ‘Pindar’s Olympian 2, Theron's Faith, and Empedocles’ Katharmoi’, GRBS, 1975, vol. 16, pp. 347-57, W. Fitzgerald, ‘Pindar's Second Olympian’, Helios, 1983, vol. 10, pp. 49-70, G.F. Gianotti, ‘Sull’ Olympica This identification may have influenced the range of activity that psyché came to have in the, living person. This picture of the shade of the dead, of course, differs greatly from that of Homer. It has become the part of the human which eventually achieves, because of its moral condition, some ideal state, free from a body. In another passage too Pindar mentions the transmigration of psychai.

SOUL Fr. 133.1-3 reads: ‘from whom Persephone will receive a penalty of ancient grief and, into the upper sunlight, in the ninth year she gives from unjust deeds’ or maintain it ‘stronger than possessions’, psyché back their psychat again’. The fragment proceeds to say that from these psychai arise “holy kings, people powerful in strength, and those two passages referring to transmigration of psychai, it has become in greatest in wisdom. For all time these individuals are called holy sociated with a wide range of psychological activities. In order to heroes by humans’ (3-5). These psychai appear to have undergone achieve a desirable and purified state, it may face several incarnations. 100 101 appears to be subordinate to them and under their control. In the the living person a seat of moral behaviour. As such, it may be assome form of purification in the underworld. In their reincarnation, One feature of psyché remains prominent in these two poets as it ‘in the ninth year’ (perhaps to be taken literally as a period of time, perhaps not), they return to earth as people particularly endowed did in the other lyric and elegiac poets: its connection with ‘life’. with authority, power, and wisdom. As such, they are apparently in the final stages of reincarnation. What happens in the next stage is not indicated but their actions as human beings give them the per- This feature may set psyché apart from other psychic entities that it has come to imitate. Psyché has become a significant psychological agent within the living person. Its emergence as the chief psychological agent has been clearly adumbrated in these poets. manent status of hero. The exact role that these psychai have in the living person remains The Presocratics obscure. They have evidently become the bearers of moral excellence or lack thereof. They atone for the latter in the underworld and in time are reincarnated. Perhaps intellectual, emotional, and The Presocratic philosophers also provide us with important inforvolitional aspects are present in these psychai while they are in those mation about how the early Greeks viewed psyché and why it graduwho are alive. They are likely responsible, after their return ‘in the ally became the chief psychological agent within the person. Tradininth year’, for the actions that win individuals the status of hero for uonal aspects of psyché persist, it is true, but new ones also appear. all time. Psyché is of central importance in the teachings of Anaximenes (fol- In Hades these psychai are subject to Persephone's control. She lowed later by Diogenes of Apollonia), the Pythagoreans, and Heracan return them to life on earth again. In Homer too Persephone clitus. We shall focus upon their fragments. Other Presocratics refer affects psychat: she ‘scatters’ the shades of women (Od. 11.385). In to psyché only rarely. Empedocles mentions it once in the traditional Pindar’s picture of psychai in fr. 133, the time in the underworld has sense of the ‘life’ removed by a weapon (B 138). Anaxagoras likea specific purpose, namely to allow some form of purification. No wise refers to psyché as the ‘life’ (B 4) of living beings and says that longer, it seems, are psychai to remain there forever. Hades has benoos governs those having it (B 12). There are several references to come simply a stage on a journey. psyché in Democritus but the fragments involved are of questionable These passages from Pindar and Bacchylides show us psyché someauthenticity.” By his time (late fifth century), psyché had become a times in the traditional Homeric sense but at other times with an extended meaning. Psyché now is an important factor in the living person, no longer attracting attention only when death approaches. It functions as a seat of emotion, endurance, and joy. It is associated with inner qualities. Someone can be ‘powerful’ in psyché or ‘unflinching’ in it. Psyche can prove generous or just. In terms of relationship to person, three features of psyché appear. Addressed in the vocative, it shows itself capable of independent activity in the person that may need opposition. When Hieron fights with ‘steadfast psyché, we see person and psyché acting in co-operation. When people ‘pay tribute of psyché to Hades’, ‘care’ for it, ‘keep it seconda di Pindaro’, RFIC, 1971, vol. 99, pp. 26-52, H. Lloyd-Jones, ‘Pindar and the After-Life’, in Pindare (Geneva 1985), pp. 245-83 (also in Greek Epic with Addendum. pp. 80-109), H.S. Long, Metempsychosis, D. McGibbon, ‘Metempsychosis in Pindar’, Phronesis, 1964, vol. 9, pp. 5-11, F. Solmsen, ‘Two Pindaric Passages on the Hereafter’, Hermes, 1968, vol. 96, pp. 503-6, Sullivan (note 18), pp. 172-4, L. Woodbury, ‘Equinox at Acragas: Pindar, Of. 2.61-62’, TAPA, 1966, vol. 97, pp. 597-616. ' ” See, e.g., B 37, 72, 159, 247, 264. Scholars differ in accepting or rejecting these fragments. See W.K.C. Guthrie, vol. 2, pp. 489-97, C.H. Kahn, ‘Democritus and the Origins of Moral Psychology’, A7P, 1985, vol. 106, pp. 1-31, esp. 3-5, Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 431-3, and G. Vlastos, ‘Ethics and Physics in Democritus’, PR, 1945, vol. 54, pp. 578-92 and 1946, vol. 55. pp. 53-64.

prominent psychic entity in the person and this role is present in these fragments. Suffice to say that he illustrates a stage not yet entirely evident in the earlier philosophers. SOUL 103 breathing. Heavy breathing alters movement and emotions. Light breathing brings less energy and sluggishness. Breathing, that is, air, determines to a large degree how a person behaves. This wording in B 2 shows us how Anaximenes viewed psyché as Anaximenes air. First, a look backward. We have seen in Homer and the lyric and elegiac poets that psyché has two principal meanings. It is an Let us turn then to Anaximenes.” One of the earliest Milesian thinkers (late sixth century), Anaximenes suggested that ‘all things’ (the universe) were in essence air (A 5). This air was in constant motion (A 5-7). He explained differences among ‘all things’ as deriving from air’s capacity for compression and dilation (A 5-7, B 1). Close-packed air appeared as earth and water; dilated air, as air itself and fire. This air was also the divine principle in the universe, encompassing all things, which it formed (A 4-7, 10). We have just one fragment of Anaximenes which reads: ‘Just as our psyché, which is air, controls us, so breath and air encompass the whole world-order’ (B 2).%! How much of the fragment contains authentic wording of Anaximenes is debated but for our purposes the fragment gives us important information about psyché. Its role is prominent. First, its nature is specified: it is made of air. Here we see again, as was the case in Homer, an association of psyché with the substance humans breathe and find crucial for life. We recall that the etymology of psyché may point to an origin related to ‘breath’. Second, in this fragment, the function of psyché is specified. The verb in the Greek (sugkrateö) has a broad meaning that includes ‘holding together’ and ‘controlling’. These two activities are what Anaximenes sees air, psyché, as doing. It unites and ‘holds together’ the human body, giving life and movement. It also ‘controls’ that body. Anaximenes has apparently observed the effects of different forms of entity that keeps a person alive, departing at death. It is also a shade preserving the identity of the person and having a continued existence in the underworld. Gradually it begins to act as a psychological agent within the living person. In this picture we see that psyché has a nature distinct and separate from the living person. It is identified with that person only after death and then simply as a pale, colourless image of the individual. Blood is usually needed for this shade to exhibit more of what the person was in the world above. When Anaximenes speaks of psyché as ‘holding us together and controlling us’, he too regards it as something distinct from the person. In examining psyché he probably focused upon the nature of breathing. In doing so, he reveals that the early Greeks did not regard it as we might. It is not human beings who breathe, drawing in and expelling air. Rather, it is air, psyché, that moves in and departs, controlling in this fashion the person and bestowing life. As long as psyché continued its pattern of moving into the person and leaving the person, that individual remained alive. If it ceased to enter and leave in a constant rhythm, the person died. This fragment of Anaximenes thus gives us evidence about the importance of air for the human being. Breathing demonstrated the presence of an entity, psyché, moving in its accustomed manner and vital for life. As long as this psyché continued its motion, ‘holding together’ and ‘controlling’, all was well. Battle brought the danger of the loss of psyché and during it care had to be taken to keep psyché safely within the body. In some degree this psyché was master of the % On Anaximenes see the Appendix and K. Alt, ‘Zum Satz des Anaximenes über die Seele’, Hermes, 1973, vol. 101, pp. 129-64, Barnes, vol. 1, pp. 38-56, C.J. Classen, ‘Anaximander and Anaximenes: The Earliest Greek Theories of Change’, Phronesis, 1977, vol. 22, pp. 89-102, Dumont, pp. 41-50, W.K.C. Guthrie. vol. 1, pp. 115-40, Hussey, pp. 11-31, Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 143-62, McKirahan, pp. 48-58, Mansfeld, pp. 82-97, A. Papanikolaou, ‘der, Anaximenes and Corpus Hippocraticum’ in Boudouris, pp. 319-26, J.M. Robinson, pp. 41-8, J. Wubnig, ‘Anaximander and the Opposites’ in Boudouris, pp. 441-4, Wright, Presocratics, pp. xi-v. The treatments of Alt, Guthrie, and Kirk, Raven, and Schofield are especially helpful. # On this fragment see W.K.C. Guthrie, vol. 1, pp. 131-2, and Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 158-62. individual. Anaximenes’ wording helps us to see the crucial role he assigned to psyché in the living person. Observing apparently that the one essential for life was air, Anaximenes considered it also the key for understanding the nature of the entire universe. The remainder of fragment B 2 concerns the ‘whole world-order”. ‘Breath and air encompass’ this in the same way that psyché does the human body. In our discussion of noos above in chapter 2, we referred, in our treatment of Anaxagoras, to the theory of microcosm/macrocosm. This theory, common in the Presocratics,

SOUL 105 assumes that the microcosm, usually the human person, mirrors the intelligence (noésis) for it [air] so to be divided up that it has meamacrocosm, the universe and the divine principle governing it. sures of all things—of winter summer, night day, rains, winds and Anaximenes presents us with the first explicit statement of this view. fair weather’ (B 3). On the level of the microcosm, air moves in and out of human beings, Air expresses itself in the rational ordering of the universe. This giving life and forming their substance. On the level of the macrosame air manifests itself as ‘all things’ and exists in a special way in cosm, the world-order (all things) is surrounded by air. This air, in living creatures. In human.beings, it gives both life and intelligence constant motion, compresses, appearing then as earth and water, and and forms the soul (psyché). Diogenes does not locate intelligence within dilates, appearing then as itself and fire. All things are essentially air, psyché but psyché itself, being identical to air, must exhibit this capaccapable of manifesting itself in a variety of ways. We see a parallel ity. Psyché then has come to have a close association with thought. between the two levels. As we have suggested, Anaximenes focused Its presence in the human person allows the ordering of an indiupon the phenomenon of breathing. Human beings breathe. So, he vidual life and the understanding of how the universe works. surmises, does the universe.’ This breathing is the motion of air as The views of Anaximenes and Diogenes are very similar but are it exhibits its own nature both in the living creature and in the universe somewhat different in focus. The earlier thinker, Anaximenes, conas a whole. Can we say more of the nature of air in Anaximenes? Is there centrates on the mobility of air, its capacity for compression and dilation, and the consequences of this capacity. Diogenes, coming within it the presence of intelligence? If so, this would be a feature later, speaks of the role of air in the rational ordering of the unias well of psyche. Anaximenes may have ascribed the function of ‘govverse. In relation to psyché we see in him a more explicit emphasis erning’ (kubernaö) to air, as Anaximander does to his divine principle on its intellectual activity. (12 A 5). If he does, this might suggest some degree of intelligence The picture we find of psyché in Anaximenes is of central imporwithin it. But our evidence is very slight and caution is needed in tance because it probably had considerable influence later. He remaking any such assumption. Psyché, we can see, does not emerge in lates psyché in a fundamental way to his explanation of reality. He any obvious way as a psychological agent in the living person in assumes that this psyché shares in the divine nature. Even though Anaximenes’ fragment, B 2. everything is essentially air. human beings in particular imitate and Some years after Anaximenes another philosopher, Diogenes of manifest the divine nature. We heard above (chapter 2) that noos Apollonia (mid-fifth century), very much echoed his views.” He too could be considered the element that linked human and divine. assumes that the primary substance of the universe is air (B 5). ‘All Anaximenes makes it psyché. In so doing he ascribes psyché a role it things’ are essentially air (B 2) and this element, ever moving, is the would consistently have in later philosophers (the Pythagoreans, e.g., divine principle that governs them (B 5, 8). Diogenes explicitly asand Heraclitus). In Homer and the lyric and elegiac poets, psyché was cribes intelligence to this air. ‘Human beings and other living creaa positive presence in the living person. Anaximenes continues that tures live by means of air, by breathing it. And this is for them both psyché and intelligence (noésis)... if this is removed, then they die view but adds to the importance of psyché by defining it as a portion and intelligence fails’ (B 4). ‘For it would not be possible without of divinity. We do not know what Anaximenes considered the destiny of psyché after death. Since it was air, it may have become part of the divine 2 See Jacger, Theology, p. 80. Indirect evidence comes for this view when we hear that Xenophanes later (A 1) denies that his divinity ‘breathed’. He may be rejecting Pythagorean views but perhaps also those of Anaximenes. See on this question W.K.C. Guthrie, vol. 1, p. 374, n. 2 and Kahn, Anaximander, p. 98, n. 2. * On Diogenes see the Appendix and see Barnes, vol. 2, pp. 265-81, A). Cappelletti, Los Fragmentos de Didgenes de Apolonia, Caracas, 1975, Dumont, pp. 699721. W.K.C. Guthrie, vol. 2, pp. 363-81, Hussey, p. 141, Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 434-52, A. Laks, Diogéne d'Apollonie, Lille, 1983, McKirahan, pp. 344-52, J.M. Robinson, pp. 49-50, Guthrie’s treatment presents his views well. air. No longer, it seems, does a negative existence as a shade in a dark, dreary underworld await individuals. Instead, a person would continue to exist simply as air, divine air. Homer had suggested that individuals survive as portions of dark air, the shades, in the underworld, all recognisably themselves. In Anaximenes this idea of individual survival seems to be missing. It is apparently replaced by a destiny for human beings of union with the divine air governing the

SOUL universe. Just as in Homer and other early poets, air never ceases to and not presenting these features in any serious way. But none the 106 107 exist. In Anaximenes it seems that psyché simply survives in its state less in being stated, they show us some assumptions that can accomas air. pany the notion of a migrating psyché. In looking at this psyché we can note some parallels to and differences from Homeric usage. The mention of a psychéin an animalis The Pythagoreans not unusual, since Homer speaks of one in a boar (Od. 14.426). The A group of thinkers who had an enormous influence on how psyché Homeric Hymn to Aphrodite also refers to a psyché dwelling outside a came to be regarded were the Pythagoreans. We know that Pythagoras human being, namely in a tree (272). Pindar similarly refers to the himself probably lived in the late sixth century and was associated in particular with South Italy. We know too that followers of his views psychai of snakes (Ol. 8.39, Nem. 1.47). But in Xenophanes’ poem psyché is a human one that has not gone to Hades but to a different formed societies of some form that survived long after his death. living creature. With the Pythagoreans, however, we face a major difficulty. Their a time long after Pythagoras and it is very hard to determine what Present in the dog, this psyché ‘cries out’ in barking. The idea of psyché making sounds is not new. We heard above that the shades in the underworld utter shrill cries like bats (7. 23.100, Od. 24.5,9). ‘Unburied’ psychai can speak; so can those that have drunk blood. exactly he himself may have taught. But one view he seems to have That the psyché can utter sounds in a held is that the soul is immortal. It dwells for a time in living creadifferent. Even though Xenophanes is joking, we may see in this tures, endowing them with life. It experiences transmigration. capacity of psyché one similar to that possessed by thumos and phrén. Pythagoras probably adopted the second idea from traditions in the Both these psychological entities are said to speak or to sing.” teachings were of a secret nature and were kept thus for a long period. Our evidence about these teachings consequently comes from living creature is something East, where he is said to have travelled. For our purposes one point As the dog howls, Xenophanes says that he recognises the psyché is crucial: the term Pythagoras used for this migrating soul was psyché. it has. Being recognisable is again not a new association for psyché. We have a piece of early evidence that associates this theory of Just as this psyché here in the dog. so in the underworld psychai prove migration of souls with Pythagoras. Xenophanes is said to have writto be recognisable to other shades and to Odysseus. They possess ten the following lines to ridicule this idea (B 7). Coming upon somecertain distinctive traits. one beating a dog, he says: ‘stop, do not beat the dog, it is clearly This psyché too in the dog experiences pain. Homer portrays the the psyché of a dear friend, which I recognised as I heard it cry out.’ shades in Hades as entities feeling grief (Od. 11.387, e.g, and 11.542). These lines show us features of psyché. It can migrate from human In the underworld, therefore, psyché has a capacity for suffering. This being to animal. It can make sounds and feel pain. In some way its now apparently accompanies it on its journey through other life-forms. ‘voice’ is recognisable. Xenophanes is being humorous in this poem The poem of Xenophanes does not say why the psyché of this friend is currently in a dog. Xenophanes is making fun of the whole notion * On Pythagoras see the Appendix and Barnes. vol. 1, pp. 100-20, Burkert, Dumont, pp. 53-68, 217-28. 443-544, 556-612, K. Guthrie and T. Taylor (eds), The Pythagorean Writings, London, 1986, R.S. Guthrie, W.K.C. Guthrie, vol. I, pp. 146-340, Huffman, Hussey, pp. 60-77, C.H. Kahn, ‘Pythagorean Philosophy before Plato’ in A.P.D. Mourelatos, ed., The Presocratics, pp. 161-85, Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 214-38, H.S. Long, McKirahan, pp. 79-115, Mansfeld, pp. 98-203, Philip, R. Purtell, “The Unity of Pythagorean Philosophy’ in Boudouris, pp. 337-43, Raven, J.M. Robinson, pp. 57-84, B.L. van der Waerden, Die Pythagoreer, Religiöse Bruderschaft und Schule der Wissenschaft, Zurich and Munich, 1979. See also further bibliography in L.E. Navia, Pythagoras, An Annotated Bibliography, New York and London, 1990. The works of Burkert. Kahn, and Philip are particularly helpful. See evidence in Diels-Kranz 14 A 8-8a, 58 B 39-40. See too Herodotus 2.123 who suggests that the theory of transmigration of souls was originally Egyptian. of the human psyché travelling in this way. If he had a specific friend in mind, he obviously did not have a high opinion of this person's psyché and its destiny. From the Pythagorean point of view this descent to a lower level of life is a serious issue. It must result from the need for purification,in psyché” 36 See for thumos Alc. 308, Theog. 826, and Pin., Pyth. 3.64 and for phren, Terp. 697, Adesp. 955.1. Pin., Pyth. 6.36 and Pae. 4.50. ” For this view of the reason for reincarnation see especially Burkert, pp. 98142, W.K.C. Guthrie. vol. 1, pp. 186, 306, Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 2358, H.S. Long. pp. 2-27. and Philip, pp. 156-71.

SOUL The impurity in psyché can apparently be removed by a series of incarnations. The Pythagoreans, therefore, present the picture of psyché as an entity that undergoes change. This change ideally is from impure to pure, if psyché moves upward through creatures. If, during some incarnation, psyché becomes worse, it may face reincarnation in a lower form. Such has happened to Xenophanes’ friend. When psyché is in human beings, we may suppose that impurity in it was probably manifested in negative moral behaviour. We saw in our treatment of Ol. 2.70 of Pindar above that psyché needed to learn to be just. Our evidence about the exact nature of impurity in psyché is slight but it may involve some form of immorality. What then is the final destiny of psyché once it is purified? Again our evidence for the Pythagoreans poses difficulties of knowing how early some views may have been. But we may perhaps assume that 109 But if they conceived of it like Anaximenes, we can postulate that the destiny of the purified psyché was some kind of union with the divine principle. | Purification, however, takes a long time of travel through different life-forms. How the psyché becomes impure is not clear. But when it becomes such, it must experience rebirth. We find in the Pythagoreans the idea that life in the body is a punishment, the body being a ‘tomb’ for psyché (44 B 14). Why rebirth purifies is not clear but the presence of an immortal psyché in a mortal form is considered to be a negative condition. The suffering that psyché necessarily experiences from rebirth apparently acts to purify it. Only when psyché escapes the body and the process of migration does it truly begin to live. We see in this view a great difference from what Homer tells us of psyché. For Homer, to have psyché within the body was the ideal. If there psyché very early on became associated with some notion of a divine was danger of its loss, care had to be taken to preserve it. In the or world soul. A similar notion emerged in the sixth century in what lyric and elegiac poets arguments had to be given to urge soldiers to are called the ‘Orphic’ cults.** These cults too, like the Pythagoreans, risk their psychai. The state of psychai after death was lamentable, were secret in nature. Both groups appear to have postulated that according to the traditional view. Pale squeaking shades having an human beings possess a portion of divinity that is immortal in naexistence that none would envy, they dwelt ever in darkness and ture. This was akin to a divine being governing the universe. The sorrow. The Pythagoreans paint a different picture. Psyché in the body term they chose to describe this portion was psyché. We can see in suffers. It has a destiny of joining the divine once it has escaped the this view a parallel with Anaximenes' association of psyché with the body. Better by far its final condition than could ever be the case in divine air ‘encompassing the universe’. a living creature. Thus, in their view, the time after death offers a A possible early picture of the world-order of the Pythagoreans is positive goal for human endeavour. in fact very similar to that of Anaximenes.* The universe appears as But, just as with Anaximenes, one feature of the Homeric picture a living organism that ‘draws breath from the infinite’ (58 B 30). is lost, that of individual survival. Although the impure psyché may This cosmic breath may parallel the breath humans draw in. The source, the infinite, is likely the divine principle as it is in other early philosophers. We must, it is true, be cautious in these speculations on what the early Pythagoreans thought about the universe as a whole. % On the Orphics in general and their relation to Pythagoras see W. Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, Cambridge, Mass., 1987, ‘Craft versus Sect: The Problem of Orphics and Pythagoreanism’ in Meyer, pp. 1-22, Greek Religion, trans. J. Raffan, Cambridge, Mass., 1985, pp. 296-304, A. Finkelberg, ‘On the Unity of Orphic and Milesian Thought’, HTAR, 1986, vol. 79, pp. 321-5, W.K.C. Guthrie, Orpheus and Greek Religion. London, 1952, Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 21-33, J.M. Linforth, The Arts of Orpheus, Berkeley, 1941, Philip, pp. 137, 166-8, Zuntz. # See evidence in Diels-Kranz 58 B 8, 22, 26-8, 30, 36-37a and 44 A 16-17, 19-21. See also Burkert, pp. 278-347 (German), W.K.C. Guthrie, vol. 1, pp. 272, 276-301, Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 339-45, and Philip, pp. 60-76. See further bibliography in Navia (note 34), pp. 215-77. tsraea=?ud retain features of the person, as we saw with Xenophanes’ poem, eventually the psyché appears to lose these as it joins the divine nature. This final union with divinity is seen as something totally positive. The process of purification takes place while psyché is in living creatures. Our Pythagorean sources suggest that, when psychai have reached the stage of human beings, they become pure if people adhere rigorously to certain prescribed prohibitions (abstinence, e.g., from meat and beans) and to other external practices.” It is apparently a ritual purity that proves effective. Human beings can, therefore, actively affect what háppens to psyché. This psyché is a portion of the © For a list of these rules see evidence in Diels-Kranz 58 C. See too a discussion of them in W.K.C. Guthrie, vol. I, pp. 183-91, Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 230-32, and Philip, pp. 134-50.

SOUL divine imprisoned in a person and desiring release. The individual can hinder or hasten its journey by chosen behaviour. The importance of psyché is that it is immortal, divine, and alone survives death. Somehow human actions affect its purity and individuals thus control the destiny of this portion of the divine. Although psychai in their migration may exhibit specific traits, it appears that in the purified state they are all the same. From this necessarily tentative reconstruction of early Pythagorean psyché as a positive entity. They thus greatly influenced its emergence ideas we can grasp the strong impact they had (along too with the appearance of Orphism) upon how psyché came to be viewed. Most important was the emphasis they placed upon psyché as a person's one valuable possession. It had distinctive features. As a portion of the divine, it demanded attention as it dwelt within the person. By its presence it gave life. It could be favourable or adversely affected ence of earlier philosophical views of psyché, especially those of 110 by what someone did. It left at death, either travelling to another 111 as a crucial element within the living human person. Heraclitus The third philosopher in whose thought psyché has an important role is Heraclitus.*! We have discussed some of his views above in chapter 2 while treating noos and thumos. We shall see in him the influ- Anaximenes and the Pythagoreans. But we shall see too that he introduces new ideas about it that would prove very influential. The interpretation of the nature of the universe that Heraclitus gives is of central importance to what he says about psyché. As mentioned in our treatment of B 114 in chapter 2, he postulates a divine principle which he terms logos.” What is immediately apparent from life-form or escaping the burden of migration and joining instead the Heraclitus’ choice of logos for the divine is an occurrence once again divine principle, with which it was akin. From these features we can of the microcosm/macrocosm principle. Greeks knew that all human see how this psyché, with the passage of time, could gradually take on an expanded role in the living person. It could come to be associmeant ‘speech’. But for Heraclitus it meant much more. One reason beings possessed logos and they would assume that this common term ated with psychological activities. It could become too a bearer of then that he may have written his views in the obscure riddles he someone's inner qualities. did was his wish to make his listeners perceive a deeper meaning in Of equal importance is that the Pythagoreans emphasized the logos.* If he could encourage those who heard him to examine the immortality of psyché and made it into something very positive. They very ‘speech’ both he and they used, he could share his views on the taught that it was an entity to be guarded and treasured not merely at the moment of death but all though life. At the same time they presented a new perspective on the time after death. No longer did a dreary shadow-like existence await the human person. Instead, the options were two. On the one hand, psyché might face another existence in a living creature. This could be more or less positive depending on the state of its purity. Even if its next existence might be rather frightening (a dog?), there was always the knowledge that the journey of psyché would go on. Each particular life-form was only a stage in this journey. On the other hand, a state as ‘purified psyché’ could impend after death. This would involve union with the divine. With their philosophy the Pythagoreans shifted the focus on this life as the source of happiness to another future one. Ironically, in so doing, they also encouraged people to concentrate on psyché during this life and to make its nature a chief concern. They took what had traditionally been the only part of the human to survive and altered its nature from undesirable to wonderful. Like Anaximenes they treated " For bibliography on Heraclitus in general see above chapter 2, note 35. On psyché in Heraclitus see especially S.M. Darcus ‘Logos of Psyche in Heraclitus’, RSA, 1979, vol. 9, pp. 89-93, “Thumos and Psyche in Heraclitus B 85’, RSC, 1977, vol. 25, pp. 353-9, ‘What Death Brings in Heraclitus’, Gymnasium, 1978. vol. 85, pp. 50110 (each of these articles with earlier bibliography), Kahn, Art and Thought, pp. 12630, 238-63, Kirk, Raven, and Schofield, pp. 203-8, J. Mansfeld, ‘Heraclitus Fr. B 85 DK’, Mnemosyne, 1992. vol. 45, pp. 9-18, M.C. Nussbaum, ‘Psyché in Heraclitus, I and Il", Phronesis, 1972, vol. 17, pp. 1-16, 153-70, T.M. Robinson, ‘Heraclitus on Soul’, The Monist, 1968. vol. 69, pp. 305-14, M. Schofield, ‘Heraclitus’ Theory of Soul and its Antecedents’ in S. Everson, ed., Psychology, Cambridge, 1991, pp. 13- 34, T. Suzuki, ‘Psyche and Logos in Heraclitus’ in Boudouris, pp. 375-83, WJ. Verdenius, ‘A Psychological Statement of Heraclitus’, Mnemosyne, 1943, vol. 11, pp. 115-21, ‘Some Aspects of Heraclitus’ Anthropology’ in Bossier, pp. 29-35. See also bibliography in de Martin6 (chap. 2, note 35), p. 173. The article of Nussbaum is particularly valuable. y 4 See especially frs B 1, 2, 50, 72, 87 and 108. For bibliography on the nature of logos see above chapter 2, note 38, and in particular the work of Verdenius. # See especially B 92 and 93. On Heraclitus’ use of riddles see S.M. Darcus, ‘Heraclitus the Riddler: B 101’, AGA, 1978, vol. 24, pp. 40-2, D. Gallop, ‘The Riddles of Heraclitus’ in Boudouris, pp. 123-35, U. Hölscher, ‘Orakelstil’ in Anftingliches Fragen, Göttingen, 1968. and Kahn, Art and Thought, pp. 3-9.

SOUL role that this capacity, shared by all human beings, had in the universe. Thus he tells them in B 50 ‘not to listen’ to him ‘but to Logos’. Heraclitus saw that speech (reflecting thought) enabled humans to organise their world. He postulates that a divine principle exists that carries out on a cosmic level a similar activity. The divinity, by thinking 113 of their /ogos, even, as Heraclitus says, after they have heard him explain its importance (B 1). Instead of perceiving what happens when they think and speak, they fail to pay attention to /ogos at all. Thus he says of them: ‘even though logos is common, the many live as though they had an individual way of thinking’ (B 2). Logos is ‘common’, a capacity shared by all people.” But they imagine that their and ‘speaking’ things, forms them. Humans, sharing in the same capacity, name these same objects, acting thereby in a manner similar to the divine. Heraclitus laments frequently that human beings thoughts are their own, of a distinctive and private nature. Furthermore when they consider the nature of the things they commonly fail to understand how their thought and speech works. But even though they do not understand, they still in practice reflect what the one another and without any unity (B 51). This, of course, is natural divine logos does." enough. It is easy to observe things as opposites and difficult to grasp The divine logos expresses itself always in opposites.* These opposites (cold/hot, e.g., dry/wet) exist as the bounds of a continuum of being. Though absolutely different, they none the less possess a unity.” that they have some underlying unity. name, they see them too as separate entities without relationship to Heraclitus must then meet the challenge of ‘waking’ human beings from their lack of perception (B 1). If with his riddles he can In B 51 he illustrates this truth. He says that people fail to understand ‘how being at variance it [the universe?] agrees with itself: there is a back-stretched connection (harmonié) as in the bow and the lyre’. In the case of the bow, its components are a straight stick and a flexible cord, each quite opposite in form and shape. Apart they form distinct units. Together their opposition provides a tension making a encourage his listeners to examine what they do when they speak, help them perceive how their minds function in their use of speech, and guide them to understand how the world they name has a rational order underlying it, he will be able to present to them what he regards as the truth. He will thus make the value of logos clear and gradually lead people to realise that, in this capacity for thought unit filled with potential energy. The microcosm/macrocosm theory in Heraclitus presents us with human beings expressing in language their thoughts about ‘all things’. The divine logos does the same on a larger scale. It actually forms ‘all things’ by expressing them. Just as was the case with Anaximenes’ and speech, a portion of the divine is also present. If people come to understand how they think and speak, they will perceive as well the divine principle. Logos and its nature therefore are central to Heraclitus’ thought. Logos is responsible for the amazing complexity that ‘all things’ maniprinciple of air, what this divine logos does is simply to display its own nature. In being itself, it speaks, makes, and sustains the universe. The nature of its thoughts becomes evident in the universe which is revealed as a unified series of opposites. As mentioned above, human beings fail to grasp the significance fest but also for their basic simplicity. All exist as manifestations of one organising principle that expresses itself in opposites while holding them in unity. Heraclitus adds also another explicit feature of logos: in physical nature it is fiery. Thus he says of the universe (B 30): ‘this cosmos, the same for all, no god or human being made, but it always was, is, and shall be, an everliving fire, kindling in measure and going out in measure’. At any instant, if a fire is observed, it is + Thus he says in B 1: ‘although all things happen according to this logos, people are like those of no experience. even when they do encounter such words and deeds as I explain, as I distinguish each thing according to its constitution and declare how it is’, See frs B 1, 19, 34, 51, 72, and 108. Heraclitus criticises human beings in order to lead them to grasp the truth within themselves. 15 Thus in B 72 Herclitus describes humans as being ‘in continuous contact with logos’. “o See fr. B 67: ‘god is day and night, winter and summer, war and peace, satiety and famine...’. See also frs B 60-1, 88, and 111. # See fr. B 10: ‘out of all things there comes a unity and out of a unity, all things’. See too frs B 54 and 123. a bright, sparkling presence in constant motion. Heraclitus penetrates * In B 114 Heraclitus probably refers to logos again as the common element on n+ * which people “should base their strength’, (We discussed this fragment above in chapter 2 under noos.) He uses the same term ‘common’ for ‘war’ in B 80. Tension exists between the opposites, keeping them in existence. (See further on B 80 in chapter 5 on justice.} In B 103 he also uses this term ‘common’ of the beginning and end of a circle. In B 113 Heraclitus again uses the term: ‘thinking’ is ‘common for all’.

SOUL 115 its nature further to observe within it a perfect balance of life and perfectly controlled cycle of change gives the illusion that the oppodeath. In the ‘measure’ that it is extinguished, it is also kindled. The balance of these opposites makes the existence of fire possible. Heraclitus says that in essence the universe is this fire. Like sites are each separate and distinct. But in reality each one is actu- Anaximenes he assumes that the nature of the whole is a manifestaalso manifests itself as fire or water. But each of these elements is tion of one element, fire, ever displaying its own nature and able to not static. Fire is water becoming fire in the same proportion as fire ally one becoming anotherin balanced proportions. Such too is the case with psyché. As it exists within the person, it appear as all other objects, especially the basic elements, earth, air, becomes water. So too water is fire becoming water in the same and water (B 30-1, 64). Thus is B 90 he says: ‘all things are an exchange for fire and fire for all things, just as goods [are an exchange] for gold and gold for goods’. The divine principle then and the universe are a fire. This fire appears as a variety of opposites. measure that water becomes fire. This process is the essence of psyché. But in the case of psyché Heraclitus places a higher value on its manifestation as fire. He suggests that human beings have some control over the way psyché can appear within them. They should try to Within human beings, according to Heraclitus, there is an entity keep psyché as fiery as possible. He vividly illustrates the negative that is associated with the capacity for logos that they possess. This is consequences of failing to do this in B 117. ‘Whenever a person is psyché. Let us look at what he says about it.* B 36 reads: ‘for psychai drunk, he is led stumbling along by a beardless boy; he does not it is death to become water, and for water death to become earth. know where he is going because he has a wet psyché’. When psyché is Water comes to be from earth and from water, psyché’. Speaking wet, the person becomes foolish, gives up control of movement to elsewhere of the world-picture, Heraclitus supposes that, although all another, and is led to an unknown destination. Wine, it appears, things are essentially fire, this element undergoes a cycle of change. brings a partial death of psyché; it turns to water. What is lost is B 31 describes this cycle: ‘the turnings (fropai) of fire: first sea but of rationality and understanding. In contrast to this psyché Heraclitus sea half is earth, half lightning storm. Sea is poured forth from earth asserts: ‘a gleam of light is a dry psyché, wisest and best’ (B and is measured in the same proportion as existed before it became Heraclitus therefore appears to urge sobriety because it allows someearth’. What has happened in B 36 is that psyché has taken the place one to keep psyché fiery. This condition is the preferable one for it to of fire as described in B 31. This substitution suggests that the essenbe in, tial nature of psyché is fiery, like that of logos itself. But Heraclitus intends in this fragment, B 36, as in so many 118). In these two fragments on psyché Heraclitus has assigned to it a significant new role: it is the seat of intellectual activity in the perothers, to startle his listener. He speaks of the ‘death’ of psyché. Surely, son. As such, it resembles phrenes and thumos. Like them it acts as a it would seem, this is a contradiction in terms. Can psyché, normally psychological agent within the person, a vital one connected with assumed both to be ‘life’ and to be the portion of the human that intelligence. never dies, experience ‘death’? Heraclitus clearly does not refer to a We see too in these fragments a range within which psyché moves. total extinction of psyché but to a change in form that it can un- It varies from wise to foolish depending on its degree of dryness. At dergo. This change may seem a negative one but it may also be a the same time it becomes more ‘alive’ or closer to extinction accordnecessary one if the universe is to continue as the balance of oppoing to whether it is dry or moist. As in the traditional view, psyché is sites that Heraclitus assumes it to be. At any moment Heraclitus that which keeps human beings alive. When it is watery, it apparbelieves that the universe is essentially a process of change in which ently fulfils this task less well than when it is fiery. fire ‘turns’, manifesting itself in measured form as the other elements Within the living person, therefore, psyché is not something static. (B 31, quoted above). As it becomes water, water becomes earth; Thus farin other authors we have encountered psychéin the living earth becomes water and water, fire, all in equal proportions. This as essentially ‘breath’ or ‘air, having a single nature. This was true of its existence in Homer and the lyric and elegiac poets. As it emerged, however, as a psychological agent, its nature could vary. *° Psyché appears in frs B 36, 45, 77. 85, 98, 107, 115, and 117-18. The Pythagoreans had introduced another new idea: psyché could

SOUL 117 become more or less pure. Like these Pythagoreans, Heraclitus too tion the term logos. B 45 says: ‘you would never discover the limits assumes change in psyché during the existence of the individual: it of psyche, even though you travelled along every road: so deep a logos varies from fiery to watery. does it have'.* B 115 says: ‘the logos of psyché is one increasing itself”. Heraclitus urges that psyché be kept in its optimum state, like fire. But it is not easy for people to maintain it in this favourable condition, There are elements in the human being that act against its staying fiery. We heard above in chapter 2 on thumos that this psy- In these passages logos is often interpreted as having a meaning different boundless and ever increasing. These statements are significant in chic entity has an adverse effect upon psyche’ In B 85 Heraclitus says: ‘it is difficult to fight thumos, for what it wishes it buys at the of Heraclitus’ philosophy we may assume that he defines this capacexpense of psyché’. We suggested in chapter 2 that ¿humos functions in this fragment.as a psychological agent that opposes psyché. What it wants, it acquires by decreasing psyché. It is psyché that provides the ‘money’ for thumos and this ‘money’ is a portion of itself! Thumos functions, it appears, primarily as a seat of desire. Psyché as we have seen in B 117 and 118 acts as a seat of intelligence. B 85 says that, once thumos gets the upper hand and psyché has been lessened, it is hard for the person to resist this thumos. Psyché. then, when it has not been diminished, could apparently help the person resist ¿humos. But once thumos predominates, an individual faces problems in resisting from that discussed above." It is interpreted as ‘measure’. The reference then is to the ‘measure’ that psyché possesses, one that is that they suggest that psyché has a capacity without limit. In the context ity in particular as one for wisdom, for understanding how the universe functions. This would be particularly true of psyché as a ‘gleam of light’ (B 118). Heraclitus used language in a rich and varied way, appropriately so for the interpretation of reality that he presented. Since this is the case, it is possible that the references to logos in B 45 and B 115 relate also to it as ‘speech reflecting thought’, that is, to the capacity in humans that he considered a share in the divine principle. We have heard in earlier authors that psyché as shade in the underworld could utter sounds. Xenophanes jokingly gives it this funcits force.” When thumos is active, psyché may still be fiery but its tion in a living animal (B 7). Heraclitus too might be assigning the presence within the person does not seem to be very powerful. function of speech within the human being to psyché. The way he Another fragment, though possibly not authentic, may suggest then refers to it is significant: the human capacity for thought and too why psyché does not abide as a strong fiery presence in the individual or why a person may encounter resistance in keeping it thus. B 77 says: ‘it is joy or death for psychai to become wet’. If psyché takes delight in becoming moist, it becomes clear why the person in whom it is found may find it difficult to keep it fiery. Yet ‘delight’ speech ‘grows’ and is ‘deep’.0’ Always human beings can understand for psyché is also again termed ‘death’. In its watery state psyché may gain enjoyment at the cost of both its rationality and its vitalizing influence. | Two other fragments of Heraclitus give us further information about more, name more, speak more. They experience no limit in the ability of learning new words and expressions. Even foreign languages are accessible to them and consequently the experience that these languages embody. The ‘deep’ /ogos that psyché possesses, then, may be a share in the divine nature. It too appears to be ‘deep’. One description Heraclitus gives of the divine law governing the universe is that ‘it has as much power as it wishes and suffices for all and is still left over’ (B 114). psyché. They are especially important in that they specifically men# This translation is based on that of T.M. Robinson, p. 32. ‘Travelled every % See also the discussion of this fragment above in chapter 2. 31 Cf. Bacch. 5.151 (mentioned above) where Meleager describes the gradual lessening of his psyche. In Eur., Andromache 541, Menelaus says he lost a ‘large portion of his psyche’. 3 No wonder that Heraclitus says in B 110, as we noted in chapter 2, that ‘it is not better for human beings to acquire whatever they desire’. road’ can also be translated as ‘travelled the whole way’. Both translations suggest the extensive nature of psyche. # See, e.g., Kahn, Art gnd Thought, pp. 129-30, 237, Marcovich, p. 367, T.M. Robinson, pp. 110, 157. See also Darcus (note 41) RSA, 1979, vol. 9, notes 8 and 17. and T.M. Robinson, p. 130. It is accepted by Conche, Héraclite, pp. 330-2 and % This same meaning of loges occurs also in B 31. 7 Cf. the reference to B 17 of Empedocles to ‘learning (mathé) increasing phrenes’ (discussed above in chapter 2). Psyché too may be ‘expanded’ by its capacity for W.K.C. Guthne, vol. 1, p. 433 n. 4. logos. 3 B 77 is rejected by Kahn, Art and Thought, p. 245, Marcovich, pp. 354, 360,

SOUL If Heraclitus locates the capacity for logos in psyché, we can see how important psyché has become. With this speech/thought, human beings organise their world just as the divine principle forms the uni- Heraclitus himself probably did not postulate a psyché surviving in Hades. Instead his views may be akin to what Anaximenes and the Pythagoreans taught. As mentioned above, Homer and the lyric and verse as a whole. elegiac poets see the fate of psyché after death as essentially some- Another fragment may suggest that Heraclitus did associate logos in this meaning with psyché. B 107 says: ‘poor witnesses for people are eyes and ears if they possess barbarian psychaï. Heraclitus uses an adjective for psychai clearly related to language. ‘Barbarians’ were those who did not understand the Greek language, even though they experienced the words that were uttered. “Barbarian” psychai would, then, it appears, be those which do not grasp the meaning of the information that eyes and ears provide. The universe with its varied yet unified phenomena remains a foreign language to them. We may suggest that such psychai are perhaps ‘moist’, not ‘fiery’ in nature. What Heraclitus approves of are psychai that are not ‘barbarian’. These thing negative. Anaximenes and the Pythagoreans make it positive, apparently postulating some form of union with the divine principle. Such seems to be the case too with Heraclitus. Psyché, capable of sharing the divine nature when it is fiery, may have an eventual destiny of joining the divine logos. But since psyché can also be watery, it may be that, if it is in this state at death, it will simply flow 118 would understand the ‘language’ of the universe. They would come to see that the universe itself is a language, logos, a divine expression varied and unified in nature. away as water. Such a range of possibility for psyché may be what Heraclitus refers to in B 25 when he says that ‘greater deaths win greater destinies’. Once again as with Anaximenes and the Pythagoreans the possibility of individual survival seems missing. Watery psychai would become water; fiery psychai would join the divine fire. Clearly this second destiny would be judged superior by Heraclitus. Our evidence for what happens to psyché after death is slight. But Our picture of psyché in Heraclitus thus far is that of an entity which has emerged as an important psychological agent within the whatever Heraclitus thinks happens to it at this stage, his interpretation of its role in the living person is of great importance. We see living person. Ideally, it will be fiery in nature, thus matching the psyché functioning as a valuable psychological agent in the individual. It can provide the key for understanding reality and itself shares in the divine nature. It has become the seat of intellectual activity. Other authors of the fifth century will proceed to speak of the enhanced role of psyché in the living person, assigning to it a vital function in the person while alive, just as Heraclitus has done. It has emerged as divine principle that organises all things. In such a state it will be wise. Functioning as a seat of intelligence, it may act too as the location of logos, the capacity human beings have for thought and speech. But this psyché can unfortunately change in state and may even delight to do so. If it does and if it becomes watery, it loses its strength of rationality. It can also prove vulnerable to ¿humos when the latter becomes overly active in the person. Psyché thus ranges from positive to negative. Those in whom it is in a positive state, the fiery one, will be able, it seems, to respond best to Heraclitus’ teachings about the universe and how it functions. What happens to this psyché after death? Heraclitus provides us with little evidence. He has one fragment that states: ‘psychat have a sense of smell in Hades’ (B 98). Heraclitus is obscure here as usual. He may be referring to a traditional picture of psyché and suggesting that in the ‘invisible’ and dark land (the literal meaning of ‘Hades’), it might be able to smell since it cannot see. a seat of intelligence in those who are alive. Summary In this chapter we have examined the Greek word psyché in Homer, the lyric and elegiac poets, and the Presocratics. This term, so vitally important in later philosophers, underwent a significant change in meaning during the Archaic Age. The authors we treated revealed important stages in its transformation. Gradually it was to designate in the living person the seat of personality. It was to function as the chief psychological agent within the individual, the centre of intel# See on this Conche, Héraclite, pp. 348-9, Darcus (note 41), Kahn, Art and Thought, pp. 256-9, and T.M. Robinson, pp. 145-6. lect, emotion, and will. But it did not appear to have these roles at all in our earliest evidence, early epic poetry.

SOUL In Homer, psyché proves important only when death impends or a son. It can be a seat of pain, love, desire, and courage. It can func- 121 death-like state, fainting, occurs. In the living person it signifies ‘breath’ tion as a location of inner qualities. We hear of someone ‘unflinchand ‘life’. The person places high value upon psyché.. It proves vuling in psyché’ or having a ‘steadfast psyché”. Psyche acts too as a seat nerable to various outside forces. In death it can leave through a of deliberation or resolve. Pindar addresses his own psyché directly, wound or the teeth. When it does, it continues to exist in Hades as urging it not to pursue certain goals. He also in one passage refers a pale shade, still a recognisable image of the person in whom it to psyché in the context of the transmigration of souls and associates once lived. it with the justice of someone’s deeds. The shades of the dead are utterly insubstantial. They make sounds like moving air. Their activities are severely limited. Until the body it is air that ‘holds together’ and ‘controls’ the body. It gives life and is buried, psyché retains some functions associated with it, but once it is buried, psyché becomes quite helpless. None the less, Homer’s picture psyché, enhanced by the body’s powers, foreshadows what it will + later become in the living person. In the Presocratics we see new aspects of psyché. For Anaximenes movement. This same air is the divine principle that forms the universe and governs it. Psyché in human beings thus shares in the divine principle. Anaximenes does not make clear the destiny of this psyché after death but it probably is a positive one, consisting of union Before they have drunk blood, psychai can move about and express with the divine. The degree to which Anaximenes ascribed intelli- ‘a limited range of emotion. Agamemnon grieves (Od. 11.387); Ajax gence to air, psyché, in the person is likewise not clear. Later, Diogenes is angry (11.543). Some shades can recognise Odysseus, other do not. After blood, psychat can understand and communicate. They can of Apollonia, very much repeating Anaximenes’ ideas, makes psyché, remember and anticipate. They have received powers usually con- Diogenes both present psyché as a positive entity, not only during life nected with psychological entities such as noos, phren, and thumos. This but after death as well. enhancement of psyché allowed it to be represented in ways that would being air, the seat of intelligence and thought. Anaximenes and The Pythagoreans viewed psyché as endowing the person with life. probably influence a similar portrayal later in the living. They saw it as an entity, divine in nature, that migrates from one One significant feature of Homer’s treatment of the shades of the dead is his casual shift from reference to psyché to that of person. Thus he easily mentions the psyché of Odysseus’ mother, Anticleia, acting in some fashion, and then refers to Anticleia herself as the one who acts. Here we have an identification of person with psyché life-form to another, gradually becoming more pure. When psychai enter human beings, they are apparently on the final stages of their journey. Humans have control over their destiny and, by ritual observances, can help to make psyché pure. They can fail to do so and may consequendy face reincarnation into a lower life-form. But if that foreshadows again the way in which psyché in those who are alive will function as a psychological agent. psyché reaches a pure condition, it evidently needs to travel no far- With the lyric and elegiac poets, changes in psyché appear. Psyche, Anaximenes, the Pythagoreans present a very positive picture of psyché. capable of a range of activities in Hades, now begins to demonstrate Its relationship to intellectual activity in the living person is still obscure this same range in the living person. Perhaps too, in imitation of thumos and phrén, it absorbs some of their functions. It has become an object of interest, not just at the time of death, but during life. but its role as sharer in the divine and its ultimate destiny as joining Psyché in these poets has in particular the meaning of ‘life’. Situations have appeared in which individuals need encouragement to be willing to risk psyché. Tyrtaeus especially suggests that honour and the person. It is fiery in nature like the divine principle, logos. It is a glory exceed the value of psyché present within the body and therefore it should not be spared. Pindar likewise says that psyché should and organises the universe. With their logos humans can understand strive to enter Hades with ‘glory’. divine nature. Several times psyché functions as a psychological agent in the perther and may experience union with the divine principle. Like that divine being make it a possession to be highly valued. Heraclitus thinks of psyché as an important psychological agent within seat of intelligence. It may be the location in human beings of logos, which is identical to‘the divine nature. This divinity speaks. forms, how this universe functions, speak about it, and also perceive the Within the living person Heraclitus assumes a variable state for

psyché. It can be fiery, a positive condition in which it displays wisdom and rationality. It can, however, also become watery. When this happens, psyché functions badly, losing its intelligence. The destiny of psyché after death seems two-fold. Either it is a positive one in which a psyché, fiery at death, joins the divine fire. Or it is a negative one in which psyche, watery at death, simply flows away as this element. Like Anaximenes and the Pythagoreans, Heraclitus presents psyché as potentially a very positive entity. Its role within the living person is now prominent. In this chapter we have traced some steps by which psyché gradually became a psychological agent in living human beings. Its first appearance is simply as the breath endowing life. After the individual dies, however, this breath continues to exist as a pale image of the person in Hades. Its very essence is ‘life’ that cannot be destroyed. In the underworld this psyché normally has a very limited range of activity. But under special circumstances, when it is given a portion of body-again, it can display various functions. Gradually we see psyché taking on activities within the living person, activities connected with other psychological entities. We observe also that its destiny after death ceases to be negative. Psyché becomes associated with the divine principle, sharing it nature and destined to join it after death. In later authors psyché will become more and more important in the living person. Already its role has been clearly adumbrated in these early authors. IN PSYCARSLS GORE ZE TRA CAL VDE AS